HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 









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A CLASS-BOOK 

HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS 
AND HISTORICAL MAPS. 

COMPIllfeD FOU PUriLS PREPAniKG FOR THE OXFORD AXD 

CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMLNATIOXS, THE LOXDOX UXIVERSTTT MATRICULATION 

AND FOR THE HIGHER CLASSES OF ELEIIENTARY SCHOOLS. 



By THE \ 

KEV. DAVID MORRIS,^-^ *^ '^^^-"-'^ 

Claasiciil Master in Liverpool College: 
Author of 'J. Class- Book of Inorganic Chemistry.' 



FIFTEENTH THOUSAND. 



u^^yr 



NEW YOEK: 
D. APPLETOK AND COMPANY, 

549 AND 551 BROADWAY. 

18Y9. 



COPYKIGHT BY 

D. APPLETON & COMPAJ^T, 
1579. 






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^2. 



PREFACE 



In thof' compilation of tliis Book the author has 
consulted the best and most recent historical works, 
and he is particularly indebted to the writings 
of Freeman, Dean Hook, Hume, Froude, and 
Macaulay. 

The events -of each reign, grouped according 
to their order and importance, are placed at the 
beginning of each chapter. The outline thus given 
is filled up in detail in separate narratives. Minor 
facts, requiring no detailed account, are briefly 
mentioned at the close of the reign. A chapter 
upon the Social Condition of the People is given 
at the end of each period. Attention is drawn 
to important persons and events by the use of 
types of various kinds, and the leading dates stand 
out distinctly in the margin. 



\. 



vi PKEFACE. 

The numerous woodcuts which illustrate the 
book are for the most part taken from ^ Lectures 
on English History' and * Life of Edward III.,' 
by W. Longman, Esq., who kindly placed the 
illustrations of those valuable works at the author's 
disposal. 

The utility of the work is further enhanced by 
four Historical Maps, drawn by E. Weller, Esq., 
F.R.G.S. 

The author gratefully acknowleges the valuable 
assistance of the Rev. H. S. Maye, B. A., of Liver- 
pool College, in revising the proof sheets. 

October 1871. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

"ferTHODUCTlON ...«.«•••• * 

Eoman Period b « « . 3 

GrOVEBNMENT, RfXIQION, &C . 7 

Leading Dates • • • 8 

Sason Period. 

Thb Saxon Hkptaecut . . . . . t . 9 
Early Saxon Kings . . . . . . . .15 

Danish Kings • .25 

Saxon Link restored ........ 28 

Religious, Political, and Social Institutions, &c. . . 35 

Leading Dates 43 

Genealogical Tables, connecting the Saxon and Norman 

Lines ^'^ 

The Norman Kings. 

V/lLLLS-M I. . 45 

William II. . . . ... = .. 55 

Henry L . . . ' 59 

Stephen . 65 

Social Condition of the People 70 

Leading Dates . 75 



Viii CONTENTS. 



Plantagenets Proper. 

PAGE 

Henry II. ... 77 

ElCHAKD I • .88 

John 94 

Hknry III. . 101 

Edward I. . . . - HI 

Edward II. 117 

Edward III. . . . . . . . • • 122 

ElCHARD II. . 132 

SociAii Condition of the Peopub 138 

Leading Authors 145 

Leading Dates .• • 146 

GrENEALOQICAX TaBLE OF THE HOXJSES OF YoRK AND LANCASTER 1 48 

House of Lancaster. 

Henry IV H9 

Henry V 154 

Henry VI 159 

House of York. 

Edward IV. .167 

Edward V. 173 

Richard III . 175 

Social Condition of the People in the Lancastrian and 

Yorkist Period 179 

Leading Authors and Dates . . . • . . .185 
Gbneaxogical Table connecting the Plantagenets with 

the tudors 187 

Tudor Period. 

Henry VII 188 

Henry VIII. . . 199 

Edward VI. 220 

Mary 1 229 

Elizabeth 237 

Social Condition of the People . . . . . 254 

Leading Authors ........ 264 

Leading Dates ......... 266 

Genealogical Table connecting the Tudors and Stuarts 268 



CONTENTS. IX 



Stuart Period. 

PAQB 

Jambs 1 269 

Charles 1 279 

The Commonwealth ......... 308 

Chaeles II. . .324 

James II . 347 

William III. and Mary II 363 

Annb 378 

Social Condition of the People ..... 387 

Leading Authors . ' 40S 

Leading Dates 403 

GrENEALOGICAL TaBLE CONNECTING THE SfUAKTS WITH THE 

House of Brunswick 406 



Hanoverian Period. 

George 1 407 

George II .417 

Leading Authors under George I. and George TI. , 435 

George III 437 

Leading Authors . . . . . . . . 471 

George IV 473 

Leading Authors . . 480 

William IV 481 

Leading Authors 487 

Victoria .......... 488 

Leading Authors . . « 509 

Social Condition of the People 512 

The British Constitution ....... 520 

British Possessions 524 

Leading Dates of the Period 526 

Table of English Sovereigns . . . . _ . .530 

Genealogical Table of the House of Hanover . . . 533 




Great Seal of Edward the Confessoi: 



MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

»<>• .■■■-■ 

PAGE 

Map of Eoman Britain To face 8 * 

„ Saxon England „ 44 n/ 

„ Fbance, showing English Possessions 

TIME OF Plantagenkts . . . „ 148 ^ 
„ France, showing English Possessions 

time of the lancastrians . . . „ 187 ~ 

G-reat Seal of Edwarb the Confessor . . . x v^ 

Stonehenge ......... ^ii '^. 

Coronation of Harold IL . . . . . . 34 ' 

Earl's Barton Church, Northamptonshire . . [33] -^ 

Witanagemot [34] -^ 

William I. grajn'ting lands in Kichmondshire to Alan, 

Count of Britanny . . . ... . [51] " 

Norman Ship [52] " 

Castle [71] v 

Tournament [72] 

Knights and Shipping of the 13th Century . . [99] 

Crossbowman and Military Architecture of the 14th , 

Century ........ [100] ^ 

Knights Fighting 106 ^ 

EoYAL Carriage of the 13th Century . . . 110^ 
Litter, illustrative of the Travelling of the 14th 

Century ......... 121 

Archer, with Sheaf of Arrows ..... 126 >- 

. Crossbowman, with Shield 127 - 

Royal Feast in the Plantagenet Period . . . . 139 ~ 

Dais with High Table and Tapestry . . . 140 



Xll 



MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 



ILnigiit in Armour, and Lady's Costume, time of Henry V. 

Soldier and Hand-gun, time of Edward IV. 

Costume of the Nobility, time of Hknry VII. 

Costume, time of Henry VIII, . 

Edward VI. and Lady Jane Grey 

English War-ship and Spanish Galleon, time of Elizabeth 

Lady's Costume, time of Elizabeth 

Costume, time of James I. . 

Cavalier, time of Charles I. 

Olitee Cromwell 

Charles II. and his Queen 

Costume, time of James TI. and Weli.iam HL . 



PAGt!; 

lo8 V 
172 
197 

219 - 

227 V-' 

243 / 

253 V . 

278 ^ 

307 '■ 

323 V 

345 / 

362 . 




HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



IXTEODUCTIO]^. 

Very little is known of the history of the British Isles 
before the arrival of the Eomans under Julius C^sar 
(55 B.C.). A Greek author, said to be Aristotle, who lived 
in the fourth century before Christ, first mentions these 
islands by name. He calls England and Scotland Albion 
(meaning White Island), and Ireland lerne (meaning 
West). The two former countries were known also by 
the name of Britannia, a word said to be derived from the 
name of the chief, Brutus, who first settled here. 

The inhabitants of these islands in the time of Julius 
Csesar were of Celtic origin, and were divided into two 
branches, the Gael and the Cymry. The descendants 
of the Gael now inhabit Ireland and the Highlands of 
Scotland ; those of the Cymry are found in Wales. 

The people were divided into several tribes, each under 
an independent chief. Those inhabiting the southern parts 
of the island were more civilised than the rest. They cul- 
tivated the land, and made cloth for clothes. The inland 
tribes lived chiefly on milk and flesh, clothed themselves 
with the skins of beasts killed in the chase, tattooed their 
bodies, and stained them with a blue dye obtained from a 
plant called woad. Their towns were simply clusters of 
huts in the midst of the forests, surrounded by a ditch and 
a rampart of felled trees. They were brave and hardy in 
war ; their weapons were a dart or javelin, a sword, and a 
small shield. They fought in war-chariots, having scythes 
attached to the axles, A great portion of the country was 



2 INTRODUCTION. 

covered with forests, in which roamed the bear, wolf, and 
boar. Many other parts, now cultivated, were once marshes 
or moors. 

Commerce was not unknown to the southern Britons. 
Long before the birth of Christ, Phoenician sailors from the 
colonies in Spain and Africa came to the Scilly Isles for 
tin, which were called, in consequence, Cassiterides, or 
Tin Islands. Trade was also carried on with the Gauls. 
The chief exports were tin, iron, gold, copper, dogs, skins, 
and slaves ; and the imports were salt, brass, and earthen- 
ware. 

The religion of the Britons was a system of idolatry 
called Druidism, from a Greek word drus, an oak, because 
their religious services were performed chiefly in groves of 
oak. Their priests were called Druids, who were also 
bards, teachers of youth, law-givers, and judges. Their 
influence over the people was immense. They believed 
that the soul was immortal, and passed after death into 
another body ; they taught piety to the gods and kindness 
to man, and oifered human sacrifices upon their altars, or 
in large cages of wicker-work. The persons thus sacrificed 
were those guilty of crime, or prisoners of war. The Druids 
had great veneration for the oak and the mistletoe. When 
the mistletoe was found growing upon the oak, the chief 
Druid, or Arch-Druid, assembled the whole tribe on New 
Year's Day, which was then in the month of March, and 
with much ceremony cut down the plant with a golden 
sickle. Two white bulls were then offered in sacrifice, and 
prayers made to the gods that the mistletoe thus cut should 
prove a sure remedy against disease and poison. 

The custom of decorating houses at Christmas with the 
mistletoe and other evergreens has, no doubt, come down 
to us from these early times. 

The immense ruins found in various parts of England, 
such as those of Stonehenge and Abury, in Wiltshire, are 
supposed to be the remains of Druidical temples. 



THE ROMAN PERIOD. 



THE ROMAN PERIOD. 
55 B.C. to 426 A.D.— 481 years. 

CHAPTER I. 

Julius Caesar, the commander of the Eoman forces in 
Gaul (France), resolved to attempt the conquest of Britain, 
because the inhabitants had given help to some of the Gallic 
tribes in their wars against him. He sailed across the 
Straits of Dover with two legions, or 12,000 men, 
and landed near Deal. The Britons, collected on fL 
the beach, bravely resisted his forces, but after a 
severe struggle they were forced to give way to 
Roman valour and discipline. After a few. days C^sar re- 
turned to Gaul, having received promises of submission and 
a few hostages. 

In the following year he returned with 800 ships, con- 
taining five legions, or 30,000 foot, and 2,000 p,. 
horse. The Britons, under the leadership of 
Cassivelaunus, chief of the tribe of the Trino- ^'^' 
bantes, were driven across the Thames, and the fortress of 
Verulamium, where St. Albans now stands, was destroyed. 
After this event, and the failure of an attack upon the 
Roman naval camp on the coast, the Britons sued for 
peace. Csesar fixed the amount of tribute, received 
hostages, and went back to Gaul with all his forces. 

Britain was fi:ee from Roman interference for the next 
ninety-seven years. During this time, several emperors 
thought of conquering the island. One, called Caligula, 
collected an army on the coast of Gaul, but instead of 
crossing the Channel, he gave there the signal of battle, and 
told the soldiers to gather shells in remembrance of their 
victory over the ocean. 



4 HISTOEY OF EN&LAND. 

At length the Emperor Claudius sent a general, Aulus 

-^ Plautius, with an army to invade Britain. He 
drove the Britons across the Thames, and was 
then joined by the emperor himself with a new 
army. Claudius penetrated into Essex, and took Camalo- 
dunum (Colchester or Maldon). He then returned to 
Rome, leaving the government of the conquered part of 
the island to Plautius and Vespasian. A chief, called 
Caractacus, headed the Britons for some years. Forced at 
last to retire into "Wales, he united his forces with the 
people of the district, who were named Silures, and took 
up a strong position on a hill in Shropshire, called Caer- 
Caradoc. Ostorius Scapula, the successor of Plautius, 
marched against him, defeated his forces, and captured his 
stronghold. Caractacus fled for refuge to his step-mother, 
Cartismandua, Queen of the Brigantes, who treacherously 
gave him up to the Romans. He was taken in chains to Rome, 
along with his family ; but the Emperor Claudius was so 
pleased with his spirit and bravery that he set him at liberty. 

Another famous leader of the Britons was Soadicea, 
Queen of the Iceni, a tribe inhabiting Norfolk and Suffolk. 
On account of insults received from the Roman ofhcers, she 
called her people to arms, and while the Roman governor, 
Suetonius Paulinus, was destroying the Druids of Mona 
(Anglesey), she overthrew Camalodunum, burnt Londi- 

^^ nium (London), and killed about 70,000 Romans. 
Suetonius soon after attacked her, and slew in a 
great battle about 80,000 of her forces. She 
herself escaped captivity by taking poison. 

Julius Agricola, appointed governor 78 a.d., was the 
most successful Roman general ever sent to Britain. In 
the first two years of his government he conquered the 
whole country as far as the Tweed. In 81 a.d. he ex- 
tended his conquests to tj^e Friths of Forth and Clyde, and 
there built a chain of fortresses. He afterwards penetrated 
to the foot of the G-rampians, where he defeated a Caledo- 

g . nian chief named Galgacus, in a battle supposed 
to have been fought at Ardoch, Perthshire, About 
the same time the Roman ships, sailing round 
Britain, discovered it to be an island. 



THE KOMAN PEEIOD. 5 

Agricola attempted to win tlie good-will of the Britons 
by establishing good laws and ruling them with justice. 
He taught them to build temples and houses, and en- 
couraged the study of all peaceful arts ; and thus very 
many were persuaded to learn the Eoman language, and 
adopt the manners, customs, and dress of their conquerors. 

After the recall of Suetonius, nothing of interest hap- 
pened until the time of the Emperor Hadrian, who visited 
the island 120 a.d. He drove back the Caledonians, and 
built a strong rampart between the Kiver Tyne and the 
Solway Frith, called the Wall of Hadrian, the ruins of 
which are known as the Picts' Wall. LoUius TJrbicus, 
the governor under the Emperor Antoninus ^^q 
Pius, drove the Caledonians beyond the Friths of 
Clyde and Forth, and repaired the forts built by 
Agricola, to which he gave the name of the Wall of 
Antoninus, now known as Graham's Dyke. 

In the year 208 a.d. the aged Emperor Severus came 
to the island. In order to punish the Caledonians for their 
attacks upon the Eoman province, he penetrated through 
the thick forests to the northern districts, and defeated the 
mountaineers in many a battle, but with a loss to -^ _ 
himself of 50,000 men. On his return, he caused 

• . AD 

the Wall of Hadrian to be repaired and strength- 
ened with new forts; and soon after he died at Ebor- 
acum (York). 

For some years after this Britain was free from the 
attacks of the Caledonians. But now a new enemy ap- 
peared, in the shape of Saxon pirates, who, coming from 
the German coast, committed many ravages on the eastern 
part of the island. An officer was specially appointed 
by the Eomans to ward oiF their attacks, and for this reason 
he was called the Count of the Saxon Shore. The first 
one appointed to this duty, named Carausius, ^.^^ 
was accused of receiving bribes from the pirates ; 
and, fearing punishment, he made himself Emperor 
of Britain, and ruled the country well, until he was slain 
by his minister AUectus, 293 a.d. Allectus was killed in 
battle by the Emperor Constantius, who restored Britain 



6 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

to the Eoman sway, 296 a.d. This emperor married 

Q-.^ a British lady, named Helena ; he died at York, 
and was succeeded in the empire by his son Con- 
stantine, afterwards called the Great. 

After the death of Constantius, the northern part of 
Britain was again troubled by the people of Caledonia, 
who were now called Picts and Scots. The Picts were the 
descendants of the Caledonians, and the Scots were people 
who passed over from the north of Ireland. These savage 
tribes penetrated once as far as London, but they were 
ultimately driven back to their own boundaries, 

A Roman general named Maximus, who had fought 
bravely against the Picts and Scots, made himself Emperor 
of Britain, and invaded Gaul with a large army of Britons, 
in the hope of becoming master of the western half of the 

rtQQ Roman Empire. He was defeated and put to 
death. Many of the Britons who had followed 

A.D. . 

his standard settled in a, part of Gaul called 

Armorica (Brittany). The Picts and Scots, taking ad- 

vantage of the absence of the troops under 

Maximus, renewed their attacks ; but Stilicho, a 

AD . 

Roman general sent by the Emperor Honorius, 
repelled them, and gave peace to the island. 

About this time the Goths and barbarians from the 
central parts of Europe were making great inroads upon 
the Roman Empire, so that it became necessary to with- 
draw the legions from Britain in order to defend Italy. 
On this account Honorius released the Britons from their 
.^^ allegiance, and recalled his soldiers to fight against 
Alaric, Kino; of the Goths. The Britons, thus left 

AT) 

defenceless, were attacked again by their old 
enemies the Picts and Scots, and were, consequently, com- 
pelled to petition Rome for assistance. A legion returned 
in 418 A.D., drove back the enemy, repaired the northern 

426 walls, drilled the people in the use of arms, and 

A.D. then took their final departure. 



THE KOMAN PEEJOD. 



CHAPTEI^ II. 
GOVEENMENT, KELIGION, ETC. 

GOVERNMENT. 

The Eomans divided Britain into six provinces, viz. : 

1. BRITANNIA PRIMA, the country south of the. Thames and 

the Bristol Channel. 

2. BRITANNIA SECUNDA, Wales and the border couDties 

west of the Severn and Dee. 

3. FLA VIA C^SARIENSIS, the country from the Thames to 

the Humber and Mersey. 

4. MAXIMA CiESARIENSIS, from the Humber to the Wall of 

Hadrian, on the Tyne. 
6. VALENTIA, from the Tyne to Antonine's Wall. 
6. VESPASIANA, north of Antonine's Wall. 

The last-named province was never conquered by the 
Romans. Each province had its own governor ; over all 
was an officer, called a Vicarius, or vicar, who was respon- 
sible to the Prefect of Gaul. There were usually kept in 
the island about 20,000 soldiers, who were under the com- 
mand of three chief officers, called respectively the Count 
of Britain, the Duke of Britain, and the Count of the Saxon 
Shore. 

The towns built by the Eomans were originally fortified 
stations for the soldiers, to which the name castra, or camp 
was given. Traces of this word remain in the names of 
towns ending in Chester, cester, or caster, as Manchester, 
Leicester, Doncaster. Many of these towns were adorned 
with temples, theatres, baths, circuses, monuments, and 
large mansions. Their inhabitants were chiefly Eoman, 
though we must understand by this term people collected 
from all parts of the empire. 

The trade of the coimtry was considerable ; there were 
native manufactures of pottery and glass, and corn was 
grown and exported to a large extent. Excellent roads 



8 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



were made and paved with stone, to which the name strata 
was given — the origin of our street. The following were 
the four chief roads : 1. Watling Street, extending from 
the coast of Kent, through London and Chester, to Car- 
narvon. 2, Ryknield Street, from the mouth of the Tyne 
to St. David's. 3. Irmin or Hermin Street, from St. 
David's to Southampton. 4. Foss "Way, between Corn- 
wall and Lincoln. 

Christianity is said to have been introduced into the 
island early in the second century. Though we know not 
how or by whom it was first preached here, yet we are 
certain its progress was rapid and extensive.* British 
bishops attended the Coimcil of Aries, in France, 314 a.d. ; 
and some are supposed to have been present at the Council 
of Nice, 326 a.d. The profession of Christianity was 
attended with the same dangers in Britain as elsewhere. 
In 303 A.D., during the persecution under the Emperor 
Diocletian, St. Alban, the first British martyr, suffered 
death at Yerulamium, since called in his honour St. 
Albans. 



LEADING DATES OF THE PERIOD. 

First Landing of Julius Csesar 
Second ditto 

Roman Invasion under Claudius 
Caractacus taken prisoner . 

Boadicea 

Julius Agricola sent to Britain 

Agricola's Wall, from Tyne to Solway Frith 

Battle with Galgacus . 

Hadrian's Wall built 

Antonine's Wall 

Severus dies at York 

Usurpation of Carausius 

St. Alban' s Martyrdom . 

Constantius dies at York 

Honorius frees Britain from its Allegiance 

A Roman Legion returns to assist the Britons 

Romans finally leave Britain 



55 B.C. 
54 „ 

43 A.D. 

51 „ 



. 61 
. 78 
. 81 
. 84 
. 120 
. 139 
. 211 
. 286 
. 303 
. 306 
. 410 
. 418 
. 426 



■^ Some think that converted Eoman soldiers were the first 
preachers of Christianity in this island; while others say that this 
honour belongs to St. Paul or St. Peter. 



THE SAXON PEKIOD. 



THE SAXON PERIOD. 

426 A.D. to 1066 A.D. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE SAXON HEPTAECHY. 

426 A.D. to 827 A.D. 

On the final departure of tlie Romans, the chief towns in 
Britain became the centres of petty kingdoms under the 
rule of military chiefs. Instead of uniting together against 
their old enemies — the people of Caledonia — they made 
war against each other, and thus offered themselves an easy 
prey to those rude and warlike invaders. On one occasion 
they had the good sense to put aside their animosities and 
unite together in defence of their homes. Under the 
leadership of Germanus, a Gallic bishop, who happened tc 
be in the island at that time, the Britons attacked a 
plundering band of Picts, and, commencing the onslaught 
with the shout of * Hallelujah ! ' routed them with great 
slaughter. This war-cry gave to the battle 
the name of the Hallelujah Victory. The 
peace that followed this victory was only of 
short duration. Rivalry sprang up again, disunion 
crept in, quarrels arose; and so the weakness that 
consequently followed invited fresh attacks from the 
wily northern foe. About this time, the southern 
Britons were divided into two factions. One of these, 
representing the Roman interest and headed by Am- 
brosius, consisted of the Roman citizens left in the 
island ; the other, headed by Vortigern, was called the 
British party, and was composed chiefly of Britons. The 
common danger of the dreaded Pict compelled both fac- 
tions to send to Gaul for help. A letter, entitled ' The 



10 HISTOEY or ENaLAND. 

Groans of the Britons,' was sent to ^tius, Prefect of Gaul, 
in which it was said : — -^ The barbarians chase us into the 

sea ; the sea throws us back upon the barbarians ; 

and we have only the hard choice left us of 

A.D, 

perishing by the sword or by the waves.' This 
last appeal for Roman help was made in vain, and the 
Britons had to look elsewhere for assistance. 

Just then, three long keels, filled with Saxon freebooters, 
wore cruising off the southern coasts, under the command 
of two brothers, called Hengist and Horsa. These pirates 
were men of large size, with blue eyes and long yellow 
hair, and armed with long swords, spears, battle-axes, and 
hammers. Their religious belief made them fearless and 
terrible in war, for they thought that death on the battle- 
field admitted them to Valhalla, or the Hall of Woden, the 
god of war, where they should drink wine out of the skulls 
of their enemies. Their homes lay on the German coast, 
between Denmark and the river Rhine. Such were the 
people to whom Vortigern turned for help against the 
ravages of the Picts and Scots, and the opposition of the 
faction under Ambrosius. They landed at Ebbsfleet, on 

.-Q the coast of Kent, successfully repelled the 
enemies of Yortio-ern, and for this service re- 

A.D. 

ceived as a reward the Isle of Thanet. The story 
of tlie first Saxon settlement in this island rests on un- 
certain tradition. It is said that Yortigern fell in love M^th 
Howena, the daughter of Hengist, and promised to give 
Qp Kent on condition of receiving her in marriage. An- 
other story says that Hengist and Horsa, attracted by the 
beauty of the country, turned their arms against the Britons, 
and seized upon Kent. For a century after this, fresh 
bands from the German coast poured into the country, and 
established settlements on the eastern and southern coasts 
and river basins. These settlers were of three tribes, 
Jutes, Angles, and Saxons, but in the course of time they 
received the common name of Anglo-Saxons. During the 
century and a half following the first arrival of tlie Saxons, 
the following seven kingdoms, commonly called the Saxon 
Heptarchy, stand out in marked prominence from among 
the mass of smaller states : — 



THE SAXON PERIOD, 11 

KINGDOM EXTENT FOUNDER DATE 

1. KENT Modern Kent .... Hengist 457 a.d. 

2. SUSSEX (S. Saxony) . Sussex and Surrey . . . EUa . . 490 „ 
8. WESSEX (W. Saxony) Counties west of Sussex 

and south of the Thames, 

excepting Cornwall . . Cerdic . 519 „ 

4. ESSEX (East Saxony) Essex, Middlesex, and 

part of Herts .... Ercenwin 527 „ 

5. NORTHUMBRIA . North of the Humber to 

the Forth Ida . . 547 „ 

6. EAST ANGLIA. .' Norfolk, Suffolk, and 

Cambridge ■ . ... TJffa . . 575 „ 
' 7. MERCIA .... Central Counties . . . Cridda . 582 „ 

The Britons fought hard for their hearths and homes; 
those who refused to yield to the Saxon invaders were 
driven to the west of the island ; and in modern Wales — 
the kingdom of Strathclyde, stretching from Dumbarton to 
Chester — and in Cornwall, Devon, and part of Somerset, 
they found a refuge, and maintained their independence. 

It was in the struggle against Cerdic that the British 
King Arthur acquired his fame. At Camelot, in Somerset- 
shire, his capital, he gathered round him the bravest of his 
followers, who were known as the Knights of the Round 
Table; and for twenty-four years he fought ^.^ 
bravely for his kingdom, and conquered the 
Saxons in twelve battles. He is said to have 
been mortally wounded in a war with his rebellious 
nephew, Modred, and buried at Glastonbury. 

We have seen that at the close of the sixth century there 
were seven prominent Saxon kingdoms established in Britain, 
These, however, did not long maintain their independence. 
Wars arose between them ; the kingdoms were gradually re- 
duced in number, till, in the beginning of the ninth century, 
they were united under one head. During these struggles 
for supremacy, the king who acquired dominion over the 
others was called by the title of Bretwalda, a word mean- 
ing ' supreme ruler.' There were, in all, eight of these 
rulers. Of these, the first was Ella of Kent ; the second, 
Ceawlin of Wessex ; the third, Ethelbert of Kent. East 



12 HISTORY 0"F ENG-LAND. 

Anglia supplied the fourtli ; Northumbria, the next three ; 
and Wessex, the eighth and last. 

During the rule of the third Bretwalda, Ethelbert of 
Kent, Christianity was introduced into his kingdom. The 
Saxon tribes, hating the Christian faith of the conquered 
Britons, continued their idolatrous worship long after their 
settlement in the island. In the year 597 A.D., 
Augustine, with forty monks, was sent by Pope 
Gregory of Rome to convert the English. They 
first came to the kingdom of Kent, and there received a 
favourable reception, chiefly through the influence of 
Ethelbert's wife, Bertha, daughter of the King of Paris, 
who was a Christian. Kent thus became the first Christian 
kingdom, and Canterbury, its capital, the first Christian 
city, which has since remained the spiritual metropolis of 
England. Sebert, King of Essex, was the next royal con- 
vert. He destroyed the temple of Apollo at Westminster, 
and dedicated in its place a church to St. Peter, where 
Westminster Abbey now stands. A temple of Diana Avas 
also destroyed, and a church built in honour of St. Paul, 
on the site of St. Paul's Cathedral. Christianity spread to 
the north in the time of the Bretwalda Edwin of North- 
umbria, who built a city on the south of the Forth, and 
called it after his own name, Edwin's burgh. York, his 
capital, still remains the ecclesiastical metropolis of the 
north of England. 

Before the arrival of Augustine in the south, Christian 
missionaries from Ireland, headed by Columba, had con- 
verted many of the Picts and Scots, and several disagree- 
ments on religious matters arose between these and the 
missionaries from Eome. These differences had refer- 
ence to the time of celebrating Easter and to the mode 
of administering baptism ; but there was unity in the doc- 
trines of the Christian bishops and those taught by Au- 
gustine. In spite of these differences, however, Chris- 
tianity gradually and steadily made way, and an united 
Church was at length formed. Before the end of the 
seventh century, the last heathen Saxon kingdom, Sussex, 



THE SAXON PEEIOD. 13 

was admitted into tlie fold of Christ, and the spiritual con- 
quest of the English was thus complete. 

At the close of the eighth century, Northumbria, Mercia, 
and Wessex, were the only three remaining kingdoms. 
Between the first two there were long and bloody wars, 
but at last Mercia obtained the supremacy. During these 
contests the most renowned Mercian king was Offa the 
Terrible. Excepting Wessex, all the kingdoms were 
under his sway ; and to resist the inroads of the Welsh he 
built a deep ditch from the Dee to the mouth of the Wye, 
long known by the name of Offa's Dyke, traces of which 
still remain. He caused the King of East Anglia to be 
murdered, and annexed the kingdom to his dominions. 
Offa in after years thought to atone for this crime by 
liberal donations to the Church. He gave a tenth of his 
goods to the clergy, and made grants of money, called 
Peter's pence, for the maintenance of an English college at 
Eome. Ina, one of the early kings of Wessex, is said to 
have founded a school at Eome, and to have taxed his 
people for its support at the rate of one penny per house. 

After the death of Offa, 796 a.d., the greatness of Mercia 
continued for a short time under the reign of his son 
Cenwulf ; but it was soon eclipsed by the greater glory of 
the only remaining Saxon kingdom of Wessex. Egbert, a 
prince who had spent many years in France at the Court 
of Charlemagne, and had learnt from that great hero the arts 
of war and government, was called to the thi-one of the West 
Saxons. Under his rule Wessex became the un- g-- 
disputed head of the English nation. The 
smaller kingdoms gladly sought his. protection 
against Mercia, and submitted to his supremacy. North- 
umbria yielded to his arms without a struggle. Mercia 
fought hard to retain its power and greatness, but in 827 a.d. 
it was forced to submit to the West Saxons, and though it 
retained for another half- century its own line of kings, 
they were only vassals to the King of Wessex. Thus, all 
the Saxon kingdoms in England were united under ^^^ 
the eighth Bretwalda, Egbert, and the period of 
the Heptarchy came to an end. Just before the ' ' 



14 HISTORY OF ENQLAND. 

submission of Mercia, the long struggle with the Cornish 
Britons was brought to a close, and the supremacy of 
Wessex extended to the Land's End. The country now 
took the name of Angle-land, or England, from the 
Angles, the most numerous of the Saxon tribes; but 
Egbert contented himself with the title of King of the 
West Saxons. The prouder title of ' King of the English ' 
was first taken by Edward the Elder, son of Alfred the 
Great. 

Of the three tribes that settled in England, the Angles 
gave their name to the country, the Saxons gave a royal 
dynasty, and the Jutes, the least numerous, supplied the 
spiritual capital of the English Church. 



EARLY SAXON KINGS. 



15 



CHAPTER II. 

EAELY SAXON KINGS. 

Prom 827 A.D. to 1017 A.D>— 190 Years. 15 Kings. 



NINTH CENTURY. 



EGBERT . 
ETHELWTTLF 
ETHELBALD 
ETHELBEET 
ETHELRED L 
ALFRED . 



A.D, 

827 
836 
858 
860 
866 
871 



TENTH CENTURY. 

EDWARD the Elder 
ATHELSTAN 
EDMUND I. 
EDRED . . 
EDWY . . 
EDGAR ■. . 
EDWARD the Martyr 
ETHELRED II. the Un 
ready 



ELEVENTH CENTURY. 

EDMUND IL (Ironside). 1016 A.D. 



A.n, 
901 
925 
940 
946 
955 
958 
975 

979 



Egbert, after tlie conquest of Mercia, compelled the in- 
habitants of Wales to acknowledge his supremacy, and 
thus all the Celtic people south of the Dee, as well as all 
the Saxon population, became his vassals. His supremacy, 
however, was soon interrupted by the invasion of the 
Banes, or the Norsemen. These invaders were of the 
same race as the Saxons, and resembled them in character, 
habits, and appearance. Their leaders were called viking's, 
or sea-kings; their vessels were painted to represent 
dragons ; their banners bore the figure of a raven ; and their 
arms chiefly consisted of battle-axe, bow, and war-hammer. 
As worshippers of Woden and Thor, they felt great 
hatred towards the Saxons for becoming Christians, so that 
wherever they landed the people were murdered, the 



36 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

houses burnt, the lands laid waste, and the churches 
„Q^ destroyed. They first made their, appearance in 
the island in the time of OiFa. At first, Devon 
and Cornwall were their favourite landing-places, 
because the Britons there welcomed them a2:ainst the com- 
Qrtc mon enemy, the Saxons. Egbert at length defeated 
them with great slaughter at Hengsdown-Hiil, 
Cornwall. He died the following year. 
Ethelwulf succeeded his father Egbert as King of the 
Qnn West Saxons. By his first wife, Osberga, he 
had four sons, all of whom came in turn to the 
throne. He is said to have been educated for a 
monastic life. In his later days he made a pilgrimage to 
Eome in company with his youngest son Alfred, and on 
his return through France he married Judith, the daughter 
of King Charles the Bald, a princess about twelve years 
old. About the same time he made a grant of a tenth 
of the land for religious purposes. His reign was so dis- 
turbed by repeated attacks of the Danes that every 
Wednesday was set apart for invoking Divine help against 
them. The Danes at first only came with a view to 
plunder, but about 850 a.d. they spent the winter in the 
Isle of Sheppey, and thus gave warning of their intention 
to form permanent settlements on English ground. Ethel- 
wulf died 858 a.d., and was buried at Steyning, in Sussex. 
Etheibald, son of the last king, ascended the throne of 
Qto Wessex, allowing his brother Ethelbert to rule 
the rest of his dominions. He married his step- 
mother, Judith, but he was eventually persuaded 
to put her away. By another marriage with Baldwin of 
Flanders, she became the ancestress of the Conqueror's 
wife. Etheibald, after a reign devoid of interest, died 
860 A.D., and was buried at Sherborne, Dorset. 

Ethelbert succeeded his brother. His reign of six years 
is noted for struggles with the Danes, who descended upon 
ort/> the Isle of Thanet, wasted Kent with fire and 
sword, and stormed and burnt his capital, Win- 
chester, He died 866 a.d., and was buried at 
Sherborne. 



EAKLY SAXON KINGS. 17 

Ethelred I. ascended his brother's throne. In this 
reign the Danes began to aim at the conquest ^^^ 
of the country in earnest. They overran North- 
umbria, Mercia, and East Anglia, and made 
themselves masters of these territories in a period of five 
years. Edmund, the under-king of East Anglia, was taken 
a prisoner by them, and, because he would not renounce 
Christianity, he Avas fastened naked to a tree, and slain with 
arrows. The place of his burial was afterwards called 
Bury St. Edmunds, and a monastery was erected there in 
honour of his memory. 

The Danes then burst upon Wessex. Ethelred and 
his brother Alfred met them in battle after battle g„- 
v/ith varied success, but at Merton, in Surrey, 
Ethelred was mortallj'' wounded, and was buried 
at Wimborne. 

Alfred became King of Wessex on his brother's death, 
in the thick of the strife with the Danes. In _„- 
this year nine pitched battles, besides smaller 
engagements, were fought on West-Saxon ground 
against these hardy Norsemen. Peace was made in 
872 A.D., and the Danes retired north of the Thames. 
Wessex was for a time delivered, but the remaining part of 
the country was entirely under Danish supremacy. In 
878 A.D. they renewed their attacks upon Wessex under 
Guthrum their chief, and captured Chippenham, the resi- 
dence of Alfred. The king himself, dispirited by his many 
losses, retired for refuge to the marshes of Somersetshire, 
where, in the Isle of Athelney, between the rivers Parret 
and Tone, he found a secure hiding j)lace for some months 
in the house of a swineherd. One day the peasant's wife, 
ignorant of the rank of her guest, put him to mind some 
cakes which were baking on the hearth. But he, wrapt in 
thought, forgot all about the cakes, and allowed them to burn. 
For this neglect the poor Avoman soundly rated him, calling 
him an idle fellow, too lazy to mind what he was ready 
enough to eat. The hospitable swineherd became in time 
Bishop of Winchester. Here the king's bravest and most 
faithful followers gf^thered round him, and it was soon 



18 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

resolved to strike another blow for the independence of 
their country. Alfred, disguising himself as a minstrel, 
wandered into the Danish camp, learnt everything he 
desired to know, and then returned to summon his 
oiyn men for a sudden attack upon the enemy. At 
Ethandune, in Wilts, the fight took place ; the 

■ * Danes fled to their camp, where they were closely 
besieged for fourteen days and forced to surrender. By 
the treaty of peace that followed, the Danes were to leave 
Wessex and that part of Mercia south-west of Watling 
Street; their chiefs were to embrace Christianity, and 
receive the whole land beyond Watling Street as vassals 
of the West- Saxon King. The district thus given up to 
the Danes was called the Banelagh. The extent of their 
occupation is seen in the present day in the names of 
places ending in by. 

In the years of peace that followed, Alfred strengthened 
his kingdom by establishing a system of militia, and by 
forming a naval force to meet the sea-kings on their own 
element. After this, the Danes had little chance of suc- 
cess against him. Once again, towards the close of his 
reign, 893 a.d., another chief, Hastings, with 330 ships, 
attempted to gain a footing in the island, and for three 
years committed many ravages in the south ; but Alfred 
successfully repulsed him, and finally drove him out of the 
country. The rest of the reign was peaceful. 

Alfred's many virtues deservedly gave to his name the 
title of ' Great.' His whole life was devoted to the good of 
his subjects, and there is scarcely a name in history that 
can compare with his. As a warrior, his wars were con- 
ducted in self-defence, and his victories were never stained 
by cruelty. His religion was free from superstition, and 
his learning void of vain show. His peaceful days were 
divided into three parts ; one was given to business of 
State, a second was devoted to study and religious exer- 
cises, and a third was set apart for sleep and necessary 
recreation. To measure the time, he made candles to burn 
one inch in twenty minutes, and constructed lanterns to pro- 
tect them from the draughts in his ill-built palace. His love 



EAELY SAXON KINGS. 19 

of learning and literary work were points of beauty in his 
character. He founded schools, invited scholars to his court, 
encouraged learning in every possible way, with a single eye 
to the good of his people. He himself translated into the 
Saxon tongue, ' Bede's History of the Saxon Church,' 
'^sop's Fables,' ' The Psalms,' and other works. 

Many things have been attributed to Alfred which have 
no authority for their truth. He is said to have founded 
the University of Oxford, but of this there is no proof 
The division of the country into shires, hundreds, and 
tithings ; trial by jury, and other germs of English law, 
' are attributed to him, but traces of all these are found be- 
fore his time. It is true, however, that he improved the 
happiness of his subjects by establishing a code of laws 
gathered together from the best laws of his predecessors, 
especially those of Ina, King of Wessex, OiFa of Mercia, 
and Ethelbert, the first Christian King of Kent ; and these 
he administered with such justice that crime became rare. 

Alfred died at Farringdon, Berks, and was 901 
buried at Winchester, A.D. 



20 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 



CHAPTER III. 
EARLY SAXON KINGS— Continued. 

Edward ths Elder, son of Alfred, ascended the throne. 
jj-.- He equalled his father as a warrior and a 
ruler, and was only inferior to him in literary 
work. His right to the throne was disputed by 
his cousin, Ethelwald, the son of Ethelred I., who allied 
himself with the Danes of Northumbria and East. Anglia. 
In the war that followed, Ethelwald was slain, and Mercia, 
East Anglia, and Essex were recovered from the Danish 
yoke. Edward, welcomed as a deliverer, became the 
immediate sovereign of all England south of the Huraber, 
and was the first Saxon King to take the title of King of 
England. The Princes of Wales, Northumbria, Strath- 
clyde, and Scotland acknowledged his supremacy, and chose 
him ' as their father and lord.' This submission of Scot- 
land is worthy of notice ; for, from the time of Edward to 
the fourteenth century, Scotland was always regarded as a 
vassal kingdom,- and its homage was one of the rights of 
the English crown. Edward died at Farringdon, leaving 
many sons and daughters. (925 a.d.) 

Athelstan, the natural son of Edward, was then chosen 

Qrt^ king. He completed his father's work by making 

Northumbria part of his kingdom. The Danes, 

Welsh, and Scots combined together to throw off 

his supremacy, but they were completely overthrown in the 

battle of Bninanburgh (Bamborough ?), 987 a.d. This 

king was zealous in the cause of religion, and eager for the 

extension of commerce. A royal order was issued that the 

Bible should be translated into the Anglo-Saxon tongue, 

and a copy placed in every church ; and the title of Thane 

was granted to every merchant who made three voyages in 

bis own ship. Athelstan died at Gloucester. (940 a.d.) 



EAELY SAXON KINGS. 21 

Edmund I., the Magnificent, son of Edward the Elder, 

succeeded Athelstan. The Danes, under Anlaf. «^^ 

940 

again becoming troublesome, were expelled from 

the Five Burghs — Derby, Leicester, Notting- ^'^' 

ham, Stamford, and Lincoln. The kingdom of Strathclyde 

was abolished, and the greater part of it — Cumberland, 

Galloway, and other districts — was granted to the King of 

Scotland. Edmund was murdered while at supper, at 

Pucklechurch, near Gloucester, by Leolf, a man whom he. 

had banished for robbery. (946 a.d.) 

Edred, son of Edward the Elder, was chosen king by 

the Witan, because Edmund's sons were too „,^ 

• 846 

young to rule. The Northumbrian Danes again 

attempted to revolt, but the rebellion was im- 
mediately crushed, and garrisons were stationed in all their 
chief towns. The king's chief adviser was Dunstan, Abbot 
of Glastonbury. This ecclesiastic desired to introduce 
changes into the Church, which caused much opposition. 
The clergy then were divided into two parties — regular 
and secular. The regular were those who lived in monastic 
establishments, and were so called from the Latin word 
' REGULA,' a rule. The secular were those who dealt with, 
or lived in, the ' s^culum,' or world, and who were the 
parish priCvSts. He attempted to enforce celibacy among 
the clergy, and .endeavoured to turn out the seculars 
from the cathedrals and chief churches. His influence 
was checked for a time by the death of Edred at Win- 
chester. (955 A.D.) 

Edwy, the Fair, son of Edmund I., became king. He 
was opposed to the policy of Dunstan in church 
matters. His betrothal to Elgiva (his cousin, it is 
said), the daughter of Ethelgina, a woman of high 
lineage, led to a quarrel with Dunstan. On the coronation 
day, Edwy left, for a while, the banquet-hall, for the apart- 
ments of Ethelgina and of his intended wife. Thither he 
was followed by Dunstan and Odo, Archbishop of Canter- 
bury ; the former forced the young king back to the ban- 
quet. The indignant Edwy, soon after, ordered Dunstan to 
give him an account of the royal treasure in his keeping; 



22 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

being unable to comply, Dunstan fled to Flanders, Then 
Edwy married Elgiva, but the next year Odo, by a 
"^' solemn sentence, separated the king from his queen, 
declaring the marriage incestuous. The supporters of 
Odo and Dunstan caused the Mercians and Northumbrians 
to revolt from Edwy, and choose his brother Edgar as 
their king. They recalled Dunstan from banishment, and 
forced Edwy to content himself with the country south 
of the Thames. The death of this king soon followed, and 
the whole country was reunited under Edgar. (958 a.d.) 
Edgar, the Pacific, then ascended the throne. His whole 
QKQ reign was one of undisturbed peace. He made 
. Dunstan Archbishop of Canterbury, on the death 

of Odo, and vigorously supported his policy against 
the seculars. In this reign the Saxon power in England 
reached its greatest height. His supremacy was acknow- 
ledged by the Welsh and the Scotch ; and the Danes of 
Northumbria, being allowed the privilege of making their 
own laws, never attempted the least opposition to his rule. 
He annually went through the country to ensure the right 
administration of justice ; and once, when visiting Chester, 
his barge was rowed on the Dee by eight vassal princes. 
To rid the country of wolves, he exacted yearly 300 wolves, 
heads from the "Welsh instead of their usual tribute ; and 
pardoned certain criminals on condition of destroying a 
spe.cified number of these animals. By his orders a standard 
of weights and measures was fixed. He increased the pros- 
perity of England by cultivating friendly intercourse and 
trade with foreign lands. Edgar died, 975 a.d., and was 
buried at Glastonbury, leaving two sons: Edward, by his 
first wife Ethelfleda, and Ethelred, by his second wife 
Elfrida. 

Edward, called the Martyr, v/as raised to the throne 
Q„t chiefly through the influence of Dunstan, although 
there was a strong party in favour of Elfrida's 
son. This king's reign was short. When hunt- 
ing near Corfe Castle, Dorsetshire, he paid a visit to his 
step-mother ; and while drinking a cup of wine as he was 
on the point of leaving, he was stabbed in the back by her 



EAEL^X SAXON KINGS. 23 

orders. He galloped off, but, fainting from loss of blood, 
he fell from his horse and was dragged along the ground 
with his foot fast in the stirrup until he was dead. His 
sad death, 979 a.d., obtained for him from the monks, whom 
he so highly favoured, the narqie of ' martyr.' 

Ethelred II., the Unready, was ten years old when he 
became king. His long reign of thirty-seven ^^q 
years was one of misgovernment, misfortune, and 
disgrace. Two years after his accession, the 
Danish pirates, whose invasions had ceased since the 
time of Athelstan, renewed their attacks under Sweyn of 
Denmark and Olaf of Norway. The multiplication of 
monasteries in the previous reigns weakened the resources 
of the country both in money and men, and Ethelred's 
government was too weak and spiritless to cope with the 
invaders. The treachery, too, of some of the nobles 
weakened the English cause, so that in the year 991 a.d. 
the king thought it best to buy off the Northmen. The 
money for this purpose was obtained from the Dane-gelt, 
which was a tax of twelvepence on every hide of land, first 
levied to guard the coast against the Danes. This tax con- 
tinued to be levied till the reign of Henry II., when it was 
finally abolished. Payments of money only attracted fresh 
invaders. At last, Ethelred attempted to rid the country 

of these troublesome foes by a general massacre, ,^ 

Nov 1 3 
which took place on the festival of St. Brice. ia'ao * 

Among the slain was Gunhilda, the sister of 

. A.D. 

Sweyn, King of Denmark, and, to avenge her 
death and that of his countrymen, Sweyn invaded the country 
in force and committed great ravages. From time to time 
his onset was stayed by grants of money; but .,^, « 
Sweyn, accompanied by his son Canute, crossed 
the sea with a fleet carrying the whole force 
of Denmark, for the purpose of conquering the island. He 
sailed up the Humber, and with the help of the Danish 
population of the north he made himself master at once of 
the district. He then passed to the south, and was 
acknowledged king of the whole country. Ethelred and 
his family were forced to take refuge in Normandy, which 



24 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

was the native land of his wife, Emma, the sister of Eichard, 

1014 the reigning Duke. Sweyn died early in the year 

A.D. after his conquest, at Gainsborough. 

Canute, his son, a youth of nineteen, was immediately 

proclaimed king by the Danish fleet, but the Witan 

decided to recall Ethelred and restore him to the throne on 

condition of ruling better. Canute was thus compelled to 

leave the country, but in revenge he cut oif the hands, 

noses, and ears of his Saxon hostages. In 1015 a.d. he 

returned with an immense fleet and ravaged the south of 

the island. In spite of much opposition, he soon obtained 

possession of the whole country, with the exception of 

London. As he was pushing on to attack this city, 

Ethelred died, and was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral. 

(1016 A.D.) 

Edmund Ironside, son of Ethelred, was immediately 

inift acknowledged king by the citizens of London, 

but, as Canute was master of the remaining part 

of the country, the Witan offered him the crown 

at Southampton. Edmund, however, determined to fight 

to the death for the throne of his forefathers. In the course 

of seven months he fought six pitched battles with Canute. 

At the last battle, Assandun, the Dane was victorious, 

chiefly through the treachery of Edric, the brother-in-law 

of Edmund, and the chief of the Saxon nobility died sword 

in hand. Edmund, by no means discouraged, hastened to 

gather another army round his banner. Canute followed 

him into Gloucestershire ; but here, on an island in the 

Severn, called Ohiey, the two kings held a conference, and 

agreed to divide the kingdom between them. Edmund 

obtained all England south of the Thames, together with 

East Anglia, Essex, and London ; and Canute took 

the remainder. Edmund died the same year in 

London, whether naturally or by violence is not 

certainly known, and the whole realm fell to Canute. He 

left two infant sons, Edward and Edmund. 



DANISH KINGS. 26 



CHAPTER IV. 

DANISH KINGS. 

1017 A.D. to 1042 A.D.— 25 Years. 3 Kings. 

CANUTE (son of Sweyn) . . . .1017 a.j>. 
HAROLD HAREFOOT (son) .... 1035 
HARDICANUTE (half-brother) . . ,1040 ", 

Canute assembled the Witan at London immediately 
after the death of Edmund Ironside, claimed as his right 
the throne of England, and was duly elected 
king. His next step was to rid himself of i^-f^^ 
all rivals. The three brothers of Edmund, viz., 

AD 

Edwy, Edward, and Alfred, were too dangerous 
to remain unmolested. Edwj, the most popular, was 
treacherously killed by Canute's orders, and the two others 
were compelled to take refuge in Normandy. In the first 
year of his reign, he married Emma, the widow of Ethel- 
red the Unready. It was then thought desirable to remove 
Edmund and Edward, the infant sons of Edmund Ironside, 
out of the way. They were sent to Sweden, where Canute's 
half-brother was reigning ; but, being a Christian man, he 
refused to do them harm, and sent them for safety to Stephen, 
the pious King of Hungary, where Edward married, and be- 
came the father of Edgar Atheling, Christina, and Margaret. 

Canute divided England into four divisions, keeping 
Wessex for himself, and appointing earls over the others. 
Amongst these earls we find the name of Godwin, the 
famous Earl of Kent. Some say that Godwin was the son 
of a Saxon churl, who won the favour of a powerful 
Danish chief during the wars of Edmund Ironside. He 
became a great favourite with Canute, and eventually the 
leading man in England. 

When Canute had made himself secure on the throne. 



26 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

by putting to death or banishing those likely to become 
dangerous, he dismissed his Danish soldiers, excepting a 
body-guard of 3,000. He ruled the country according to 
Saxon law, and tried to create a good feeling between Dane 
and Saxon. By the help of his English subjects, he 
conquered Norway and Sweden, and exacted homage from 
Malcolm, King of Scotland. His later life was marked by 
zeal for religion. He went upon a pilgrimage to Rome, 
and there renewed the grant of Peter's pence to the Pope. 
He endowed monasteries, built churches, and devoted much 
money for other religious purposes. He is also said to have 
introduced Christianity into Denmark. On one occasion 
his courtiers said in flattery that his greatness was such 
that the sea would obey him. To rebuke their foolishness, 
he seated himself on the beach near Southampton, and 
ordered the waves to retire. Waiting until the tide had 
surrounded his chair, he then reminded his flatterers that his 
power was nothing compared with His who alone could say 
to the waves, ' Thus far shalt thou go, and no further.' 

Canute- died at Shaftesbury, and was buried at Win- 
chester. (1035 A.D.) By his first wife he had two sons, 
Sweyn and Harold ; and by his second wife, Emma, he 
had a son, Hardicanute, and a daughter, Gunhilda. When 
he died, Sweyn was ruling in Norway ; Hardicanute held 
possession of Denmark ; and Harold was in England. 

Harold Harefoot claimed the throne of England on his 

inQ*; ^^ther's death, and was strongly supported by 
the Danish party. Emma, Earl Godwin, and 
the chief men of Wessex claimed the throne for 
Hardicanute, in accordance with Canute's agreement with 
Emma on her marriage, though that prince had not a drop 
of English blood in his veins. To prevent a civil war, the 
Witan divided the country between the two claimants ; 
Harold was to reign north of the Thames, and Hardicanute 
in the south. The latter prince, however, wasted his time 
in Denmark, while his mother Emma and Earl Godwin 
looked afler his interests in England. 

Edward and Alfred, the sons of Ethelred the Unready 
and Emma, taking advantage of the divisions of the king- 



DANISH KINGS. 27 

dom, made an attempt to recover their father s throne, but 
were forced to retire to Normandy. Alfred, the younger 
of the two, was soor afterwards enticed b^cfc, and, falling 
into the hands of Harold, was cruelly put to death at Ely. 
Earl Godwin was suspected of having a hand in this crime. 
As Hardicanute delayed to come to England, the Witan of 
Wessex deposed him,and elected Harold, 1037 a.d. Harold 
immediately banished Emma, who retired to the - ^.^ 
court of Baldwin of Flanders. He died at Oxford, 
having no children. 

Hardicanute was in Flanders with his mother, making 
great preparations for the invasion of England, when news 
of Harold's death reached him. The Witan offered him 
the throne, and he immediately sailed to Sandwich, in 
Kent, and was acknowledged king. He laid heavy taxes 
upon his subjects, and was altogether a rapacious, cruel, 
and bloodthirsty tyrant. He ordered Harold's body to be 
dug up, beheaded, and thrown into the Thames. It was 
afterwards recovered and secretly buried by the Danish 
population of London in their own burial-place outside 
the walls, where the church of St. Clement-le-Danes now 
•stands, in the Strand. Earl Godwin was accused of a share 
m Alfred's murder, tried, and acquitted. But to appease 
the king, he presented him with a splendid ship, having a 
beak of gold, and manned with eighty chosen warriors, all 
armed with the choicest weapons, and decorated with gold 
and silver. 

Hardicanute's excessive taxation excited a rebellious 
spirit in many parts of the country. In the city of 
"Worcester the collectors were set upon and killed. The 
king in revenge burnt the city and ravaged the country. 
He died suddenly in a drunken fit, at Lambeth, at ioaq 
a marriage festival, just as he was proposing the 
bride's health. He was buried at Winchester by 
the side of his father, and with him the direct line of Canute 
came to an end. Some time before his death, as he had 
no children, he sent for his half-brother Edward from 
Normandy, with a view to his succession to the crown. 



2B HISTOEY OP ENGLAND. 



CHAPTER V. 

SAXON LINE RESTORED. 
1043 A.D. to 1066 A.D.— 24 Years. 2 Kings. 



EDWARD III. (the Confessor) . . . 1042 a.d. 
HAROLD II. (son of Earl Godwin) . .1066 „ 

Edward III., son of Ethelred the Unready and Emma, was 

immediately chosen king on the death of Hardicanute. 

--.^ The Danish line, on account of the misconduct of 

the sons of Canute, had become hateful, and the 

A.D. . . ■ . . 

feeling of the nation demanded "a king of English 
blood. Edward, the second son of Ethelred, was the only 
English prince at hand. Since the accession of his half- 
brother Hardicanute, the English court had been his home. 
The son of Edmund Ironside, who had the best claim to 
the crown by right of descent, was an exile in a foreign 
land, and no one thought of him ; he had passed out of 
mind. There was a slight opposition to Edward in favour 
of Sweyn of Denmark, but the popular voice and the 
influence of Earl Godwin succeeded in placing upon tne 
throne a descendant of the royal house of Cerdic. 

Edward, on his accession, was about forty years of age. 
He was a man of moderate height, his face full and rosy, 
and his hair and long beard as white as snow. His manners 
were gentle and affable, and his character thoroughly 
religious. Though the son of an English king, his mother 
was a Norman, and twenty-seven years of his life had been 
spent in Normandy. His habits, feelings, and language 
were, therefore, Norman ; and under him the Norman 
Conquest of England, accomplished by Duke William, 
may be said to have begun. His Norman companions and 
friends came over in great numbers. These he enriched 



SAXON LINE RESTOEED. 29 

with English estates, and raised to the highest honours in 
the kingdom. Norman priests were made bishops, Nor- 
man barons ruled as earls, Norman soldiers guarded the 
king's person, and French language and fashions became 
the rule of the English court. Thus- the soil of England 
was prepared for the foot of Norman William. 

Edward married Edith the Fair, the daughter of Earl 
Godwin, and thus further increased the power of this 
nobleman. This formidable earl ruled Wessex, Sussex, 
and Kent ; his son Sweyn, Gloucester and neighbouring 
counties ; and his son Harold ruled East Anglia. The 
northern part of Mercia and the northern counties were 
ruled by Earls Leofric and Siward respectively. 

These powerful earls were very jealous of the king's 
favour towards the Normans. There was a strong Saxon 
party opposed to Edward's Norman favouritism, and an 
occasion only was wanting to show how much the people 
disliked it. An opportunity was given for this in 
1051 A.D., when Eustace, Count of Boulogne, the king's 
brother-in-law, was returning home from a visit which he 
had made to Edward at Gloucester. On coming to 
Dover, Eustace and his followers demanded food and 
shelter, as if in an enemy's country. The townspeople 
rose up in arms, and, after many had fallen on both sides, 
the Norman count left the town and returned to the king's 
court, where he told his tale in his own fashion. As Dover 
was under the rule of Godwin, the Earl was commanded to 
punish the burghers forthwith for this outrage upon the 
king's friend and relative. The earl refused, and demanded 
that Eustace and his followers should be surrendered for 
trial for their conduct to the people of Dover. Godwin 
backed up his demand by a display of military force, and 
threatened to make war upon the king. He w^as dissuaded 
from carrying out this threat by the interference of Siward 
and Leofric, and on their advice the dispute was referred 
to the next Witanagemot. In the meantime Godwin's 
friends withdrew their support, and the great earl and his 
sons were eventually outlawed, and left the country. The 
Earl's daughter, Edith, too, was sent away from court, and 



30 HISTOEY OJF ENGLAND. 

confined in a nunnery at Wherwell. This overthrow of 
the Saxon leader was a triumph to the Norman party, and 
honours and offices were freely divided amongst them. 
About this time, Duke "William of Normandy paid a visit 
to Edward at London. On all sides, he saw evidences of 
Norman influence sufiicient to excite in his breast the hope 
of one day calling the kingdom his own. 

The spread of Norman power caused the people to long 
for the return of their outlawed patriotic earl, and mes- 
sage after message was sent to him in Flanders urging him 
to come back. 

Godwin joetitioned the king for a reconciliation, but in 

^p.f'fy vain. However, in the summer of 1052 a.d., he 
landed on the south coast, and was heartily wel- 
comed by the great body of the nation. Edward, 
to avoid a civil war, became reconciled, and the earl and 
his sons were restored to their honours and possessions, and 
the Lady Edith returned from Wherwell to the court of 
her husband. The leaders of the Norman party, who had 
done so much mischief, -were outlawed, and only those 
foreigners were allowed to remain in the country ' whom 
the king liked, and who were true to him and all his folk.' 

In the following year, Godwin died, and was succeeded in 
his estates and honours by his son Harold. On the death 
of Siward, in 1055 a.d., Harold's brother, Tostig, Avas made 
Earl of Northumbria. The latter part of this reign was 
much disturbed by the incursions of the Welsh under 
King Griffith. Harold marched into Wales, and thoroughly 
subdued the people. Trouble next came from the north, 
where the people, disliking the rule of Tostig, had revolted 
from his authority. Uniting with the Mercians, they 
threatened war against Edward, if he persisted in forcing 
Tostig upon them. Harold advised the king to yield to 
their demands, and confirm their choice of Morcar, the 
grandson of Leofric of Mercia, for their earl. For this, 
Tostig vowed vengeance against his brother, and withdrew 
to Flanders. As Edward had no children, men's thoughts 
were busy about the succession to the crown. It was 
determined to send to Hungary for Edward, the son of 



SAXON LINE RESTOKED. SI 

Edmund Ironside, who, in 1017 A.D., had left England 
through fear of Canute. He returned, accompanied by his 
wife and three children, Edgar, Margaret, and Christina, 
but died soon after his arrival, 1057 a.d. 

Edward the Confessor died during the Christmas Wita- 
nagemot, and was buried in the West Minster, 
which was only consecrated a few days before ^^A/»' 
his death. About a century afterwards he was 
canonised, and was for a long time considered * ' 
the patron saint of England. There were many amiable 
and excellent points in the character of Edward. He 
was a lover of peace, an enemy to violence, force, and 
oppression, and he endeavoured to make his rule as light as 
possible. On the other hand, he was very superstitious 
and monkish, and scarcely equal to the government of the 
English nation. 

During this reign a body of laws was compiled from the 
codes of Ethelbert, Ina, and Alfred, which was afterwards 
known as the ' Laws of Edward the Confessor.' These are 
now lost. 



HAEOLD II. 1066 A.D. 

As soon as the body of Edward was placed in the tomb, 
Harold, the son of Earl Godwin, was proclaimed king in a 
vast assembly of the chiefs and nobles and of the citizens 
of London. The court v/as immediately cleared of foreign 
favourites, but they were allowed to remain in the country, 
and enjoy their possessions. There were two other 
claimants for the throne — Edgar the Atheling, grandson of 
Edmund Ironsides, and William, Duke of Normandy. 
Edgar, a boy of about ten years old, was at once passed 
over ; but William was not so easily got rid of. He said 
that Edward Lad appointed him his successor, and that 
Harold himself had promised on oath to support his right 
to the English crown. If this be true, Edward gave away 
what Avas not his own, for the disposal of the crown lay 
not Avith the king, but with the great coimcil of the nation ; 
and Htu'oid's oath was made through fear when he was ia 



32 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

the power of William. "William determined to fight for 
what he considered his rights. All Normandy resounded 
with the din of preparation ; adventurers came to him from 
all parts — from the north and the south, from the banks 
of the Rhine, and even from beyond the Alps. Promises 
of fair lands and Saxon heiresses were freely held out to 
these soldiers of fortune ; domains, castles, and towns were 
offered to one and another; and thus 60,000 men were soon 
gathered together for the conquest of England, and a fleet 
of nearly 800 ships was provided for their transport. The 
alleged perjury of Harold obtained from Pope Alexander 11. 
the Papal sanction for the expedition ; and a decree, called 
a bull, from its round leaden seal, a consecrated banner, 
and a ring were sent to the Norman duke. One of the first 
to attend the Norman court at Rouen was Harold's brother, 
Tostig. William and Tostig had each married daughters 
of Baldwin, Count of Flanders. Tostig offered his services, 
and was supplied with a few ships, with which he ravaged 
the south-eastern coasts, and attempted a landing in North- 
umbria. Repulsed in this attempt, he sought the aid of 
Hardrada, King of Norway. With a fleet of 300 ships, 
Tostig and the Norwegian king sailed up the Humber, 
defeated the earls Edwin and I\Iorcar, and captured York. 

Harold was in the south, preparing for the invasion of 
William, when he heard of the trouble in the north. He 
immediately marched northwards, and surprised the 
invaders at Stamford Bridge, on the Derwent. A short 
parley took place before the battle. Harold offered his 
brother the earldom of Northumbria, if he would give up 
the war. ' But what,' said Tostig, ' shall my ally, the 
noble Hardrada, receive ? ' ' Seven feet of English ground 
for a grave, or a little more, as he is taller than common 
men ! ' was the reply. ' Ride back, ride back,' cried Tostig 
to the messenger, '■ and tell King Harold to prepare for the 
fight.' The armies then joined battle ; Hardrada, Tostig, 
and the flower of the Norwegian army were slain, and only 
twenty-three ships, the miserable remains of 300, returned 
to Norway. 

The battle of Stamford Bridge took place September 25. 



SAXON LINE KESTOEED. 33 

Three days afterwards, the Normans landed at Pevensey, in 
Sussex, and immediately marched to Hastings. Harold 
was sitting at a feast in York when neAvs of the invasion 
reached him. He at once hurried south by forced marches 
with an army much diminished by the late battle and by 
stragglers. He further weakened his forces on reaching 
London by sending round a fleet of 700 ships in' the hope 
of cutting off the retreat of the Normans. 

Harold reached the hill of Senlac, nine miles from 
Hastings, October 13, and there he determined to await 
the attack of the enemy. A great part of the day was 
spent in negotiation, but Harold refused to resign the 
crown or settle the dispute in any way except by the 
sword. The night was spent by the Normans in religious 
exercises, and by the English in feasting and revelry. The 
morning of October 14 saw the two hosts on opposite hills, 
with a slight valley between ; the English, however, having 
the higher slope. The latter, without archers or cavalry, 
depended upon their favourite weapon, the battle-axe ; 
and, protected by ditches and palisades, they showed an 
impenetrable front to the foe. The strength of the Nor- 
man army lay in its armoured horsemen and its archers. 
At nine o'clock in the morning, the Normans rushed to 
the fight with the war-cry ' God help us,' and were received 
with the shouts of ' Holy Eood ' and ' Mighty God ' from 
the English ranks. For six hours the Norman horse tried 
in vain to pierce the Saxon host; again and again they 
were hurled headlong down. the hill. At one time a panic 
ran through the invading army ; a rumour spread that 
Duke William was killed and all was lost. The Duke 
himself unbarred his vizor, stopped the flying horsemen, 
and once more restored the battle. The Norman archers 
were now directed to shoot upwards, so that the arrows 
might fall perpendicularly, and the cavalry were instructed 
to feign retreat, in order to draw the English from their 
position. These plans succeeded ; the Saxons rushed down 
the slope, and were cut to pieces by the Norman horse. 
About this period of the battle Harold fell, pierced in the 
left eye by an arrow, and shortly afterwards his two 



34 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



brothers were slain around the standard. The English 
troops, broken and dispirited by the loss of their leaders, 
retreated to the woods in their rear, making a stand 
wherever they could to beat back their pursuers. The 
Normans paid dearly for their victory. Duke William had 
three horses killed under him ; and on the following 
morning, when the muster-roll was called over, 15,000 men 
were missing. 

The force of England still remained unconquered, but 

there was no leader to combat the invader. The death of 

Harold and the chief nobles of the south decided the fate 

of the kingdom, and thus the Battle of Senlac, 

Oct. 14, better known as the Battle of Hastings, gave to 

1066 William the English sceptre. Harold's body was 

A.D. buried at Waltham Abbey, which he had founded 
and enriched. William afterwards founded Battle 
Abbey, near Hastings, and enjoined the monks to pray for 
the souls of the slain. 




Coronation of Harold. (From the Bayeux Tapestry. "I 



SAXON LINE RESTORED. 



[33] 




Anglo-Saxon Architecture. 
Earl's Barton Ghiarch, isrortliamptonshire. 



[34] 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 




a 



a 
<s 



THE SAXON PERIOD. 35 



THE SAXON PERIOD. 

EELIGIOTTS, POLITICAL, AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS, ETC. 



Beligion. 

The Saxons, at the time of their arrival in this island, were 
idolaters. They believed in the immortality of the soul, 
and a future state of rewards and punishments. Valhalla 
was their paradise, where heroes indulged in martial sports, 
feasted on boar's flesh, and drank beer and mead out of the 
skulls of their enemies. Cowards and those who did not 
die on the battle-field went to the place of punishment, 
which they called Niflheim. They had numerous deities, 
of whom Woden or Odin was the chief. Each day of 
the week was dedicated to some deity, whose name is still 
preserved in the names of our days. Thus : — 

Sunday i.e. Sunnundseg /rom the Sun. 

Monday „ Monundgeg „ Moon. 

Tuesday „ Tieuesdaeg „ Tyr or Tuisco (a hero). 

Wednesday „ "Wodnesdasg „ Woden {chief ^od). 

Thursday „ Thorsdaeg „ Thor (a god). 

Friday „ Freyadaeg „ Freya (a goddess, wife of 

Saturday „ Saeterdeeg „ Saeter {a god). [Woden). 

There were, besides, other deities ; an annual festival was 
devoted to a goddess, Eastre, whose name iiow distinguishes 
a great Christian festival. 

The arrival of Christian missionaries from Rome has 
already been mentioned. In less than 100 years f,^„ 
after this .date the whole of Saxon Ens-land had 

A.D. 

embraced Christianity. Bishoprics were founded ; 
dioceses were formed ; parishes were marked out ; and 
tithes set apart for the maintenance of religion. The 
tithe, or tenth part of the produce of the land, seems to 
have been divided into four parts : one to maintain the 
3 



36 HISTOKY OF ENaLAND. 

buildings of the church ; the second to support the poor ; 
the third for the bishop ; the fourth for the clergy. Monas- 
teries became general soon after the introduction of Chris- 
tianity, but their rules were not very strict until the time 
of Dunstan, who made great changes in their discipline. 

The inroads of the Pagan Danes caused sad havoc 
amongst the religious institutions of the Saxons ; but they, 
in turn, became converts to the Christian faith. 

Government and Laws. 

Distinction of Eanks. — The king was the head of the 

nation. At first, he was simply an elected leader for some 
difiacult enterprise, but in course of time such a leader 
acquired royal power. As head of the nation, the king had 
the power of summoning and directing the proceedings of 
the great national council, called the Witanagemot ; he had 
also the right of appointing all public officers, disposing of 
the public lands, and of holding property in forests, tolls, 
wrecks, &c. The kingly office was elective, not hereditary ; 
but it was the rule to choose a member of the royal 
family. The king's wife was at first called queen; but 
after the crime of Eadburga, wife of Brihtric of Wessex, 
who poisoned her royal husband, she was named the 
lady. Members of the royal family were called Ethel- 
ings. 

The next in rank to the king were the Earldermen or 
earls. They were the higher nobles, and governed 
districts called shires. In the time of Canute the name 
alderman was changed to earl or jarl. His duty was to 
lead the men of his shire to battle, to sit with the bishop in 
the county court, and to enforce justice. 

Below the earls were two classes of freemen. Thanes and 
Ceorls. The Thanes were the owners of the land, and were 
either men of good birth or successful Ceorls. Five hides 
of land (about 600 acres) was the least a Thane could 
hold ; if his estate became less than this, he fell to the rank 
of ceorl. The Thanes were dependent upon the higher 
nobles and accompanied them to battle. 



THE SAXON PERIOD. 37 

The Ceorls, or yeomanry, were the cultivators of the 
land. A ceorl might rise to the rank of a thane if he pos- 
sessed five hides of land or made three voyages in his own 
ship. He had the right to wear long hair and carry arms, 
— privileges which distinguished him from the servile 
class. 

The lowest rank of all was the servile class. These 
were called theows, thralls, or serfs, and were made up 
of descendants of the conquered Britons, prisoners taken in 
war, criminals who could not pay their fines, and the very- 
poor who wanted support in a famine and sold themselves. 
In the later Saxon times, freemen were sometimes kid- 
napped and sold as slaves. The serfs were sold with the 
land and cattle. They were sometimes given in barter 
instead of money, their value being usually reckoned as 
four times that of an ox ; and their owner could treat them 
like cattle. A slave might become a freeman if his master 
willed it. In such a case, the proper officer put into his 
hands a sword or a spear, and told him to go where he 
liked. When a freeman fell ta the rank of a serf, he 
publicly laid aside his lance or sword, knelt down before 
his new master, and then took up the bill or goad as an 
emblem of service. 

At the time of the Norman Conquest, there were about 
25,000 of this class. 

The Witanagemot. — This was the great council of the 
nation, or the assembly of the wise men, which met in one 
of the royal cities at Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. 
It was composed of the king, the chief nobles, prelates, 
abbots, and leading thanes, and answered to our modern 
Parliament. The members were not elected ; they attended 
by right. The duties of the Witan were to make new 
laws ; to impose taxes ; to make peace oi war ; to elect a 
king ; to appoint bishops ; to grant lands ; to act as the 
supreme court of justice. 

Courts of Justice. — The greater nobles had the right of 
trying cases of a simple kind which arose in their district. 
This court was usually held in the lord's hall, and was 
therefore called the Hall-mote. Offences of a graver 



38 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

cliaracter were tried in the Hundred-mote, which sat once 
a month, under the presidency of the alderman, or chief 
officer of the hundred. 

The highest court of all was the Shire-mote, or County 
Court, which was held twice a year, and presided over by 
the alderman and bishop. 

Modes of Trial. — A person accused of a crime might 
clear himself either by compurgation or by ordeal. The 
first method consisted in bringing forward a certain number 
of persons to assert upon oath their belief in the innocence 
of the accused. The worth of one's oath depended upon 
social rank. Thus, a thane's word was as valuable as that 
of six ceorls, and an earl's evidence might outweigh that 
of a whole township. 

The trial by ordeal was really an appeal to the judgment 
of God, in the belief that Heaven would defend the right. 
There were three kinds of ordeal : the hot water, the hot 
iron, and the corsned or consecrated bread. In the hot- 
water ordeal, the accused person thrust the hand into a 
vessel of boiling water. The hand was then carefully 
bandaged for three days, and if it healed during that time 
the accused was pronounced innocent. In the hot-iron 
ordeal, a piece of heated iron was carried nine feet in the 
naked hand, which was then bandaged as in the former 
case, and innocence or guilt was decided in the same 
manner. The corsned. was a piece of consecrated bread 
given to the accused to eat, and if it appeared to stick in 
his throat, or if he shook or turned pale in the attempt to 
swallow it, his guilt was said to be proved. 

Punishments. — The most common punishment was the 
imposition of a fine. Almost all offences could be atoned 
for by the payment of money. Every man's life had a 
certain value, called his were-gild ; so that if a person were 
killed other than wilfully, his representatives received 
from the culprit the appointed were. The were depended 
upon the rank of the person ; thus, the were-gild of a ceorl 
was two hundred shillings ; of a lesser thane, six hundred 
shillings ; of a greater thane, twelve hundred ; of an earl, 
twice as much, &c. A certain value was aLso placed upon 



THE SAXON PERIOD. 39 

different parts of the body, so that injury to any part could 
be atoned for by a fine. It must be remembered that 
failure to pay these fines reduced a free-man to the state of 
slavery. 

There were certain crimes always visited with death. 
These were wilful murder, high treason, open theft, and 
housebreaking. The usual mode of execution was hanging. 
Besides fines and death, there were other punishments in 
use : as whipping, imprisonment, outlawry, branding, the 
pillory, cutting off a limb, mutilation of the nose, ears, and 
lips, plucking out the eyes, and tearing off the hair. 

Divisions of the Country and Land. — The country 
was divided into counties or shires, hiindreds, and 
tithings, but when, and by whom, cannot be determined. 
We must bear in mind that each band of conquering 
Saxons formed a little army, and that each man received 
a certain share of the conquered land. The allotment was 
usually about thirty -three acres. Every ten families 
formed a tithing, ten tithings constituted a hundred, and 
an uncertain number of hundreds formed a shire. As the 
people settled down, the tithings and hundreds pointed out 
divisions of land, not so many families. The land given 
out to private persons as settlements was called Bocland ; 
that is, land held by bok or book. Before writing became 
common, the land was given in the presence of witnesses 
by handing over to the new possessor some symbol, as a 
staff, a horn, a twig, or a piece of turf. In York Minster 
may be seen now the horn which was given in Saxon 
times with the lands forming the early endowment of that 
church. 

Certain lands were kept for the benefit of the people at 
large, and these were, called Folkland, or the land of the 
people. 

The population of England during this period cannot be 
satisfactorily given. At the time of the Norman Conquest 
it is supposed to have been more than two millions. 



40 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



Social Institutions. 

Food. — The Saxons were great eaters. The common 
fare was oaten bread, beer, and swine's flesh. Fish was 
plentiful. The upper ranks ate wheaten bread, meats of 
different sorts, and drank wine and mead. They sat at 
their feasts on long benches around large square tables, 
and the roasted meats were served up on spits, and each 
person cut for himself. Drunkenness was a common vice. 
On festive occasions, feasting and revelry continued for 
days, and a sober person then was a rare thing to see. 

Dress. — The ordinary dress of the people was a tunic 
which reached to the knees, and was fastened round the 
waist by a girdle. The carter's frock of the present day 
closely resembles those old tunics. The higher classes 
wore a linen shirt under the tunic, and over it a short silk 
mantle, richly ornamented. Loose drawers reached to 
the knees, and stockings or hosen, made of linen or 
woollen, were sometimes worn and cross-gartered like a 
Highlander's. Shoes of leather or wood were worn. The 
hair was worn long and parted in the middle ; and the 
men seldom used a covering for the head. The beard was 
shaven on the. upper lip and top of the chin ; the rest grew 
long. 

Females wore a long garment reaching to the feet, with 
loose sleeves, and under this was a close-fitting tunic or 
kirtle ; over all was a mantle for out-door use. Their 
head-dress was a square piece of linen or silk, which con- 
cealed the hair and neck and showed only the face. 
Gloves were not used. Ornaments were common among 
the higher classes, and paints for the face were often used. 
Bright colours in dress were much liked by both sexes. 

Dwellings and Furniture. — The houses of the better 
class were made of wood, and roofed with thatch. The 
poor lived in mud-hovels. There were no upper storeys 
or chimneys. A hole in the roof served as an outlet for 
smoke. Glass windows were scarcely known ; horn, linen 
screens, or lattices were used instead. Bare ground 



THE SAXON PERIOD. 41 

formed the floor, which in high -class houses was covered 
with rushes. The rich had hangings of needlework for the 
inside walls, and some of these were richly ornamented. 

The furniture was simple, clumsy in structure, but, in 
some cases, highly ornamented. Eude benches, square 
tables, or boards on tressels, were found in the poor man's 
hovel. In the dwellings of the higher classes there were 
chairs in shape like our camp-stools, and some with high 
backs, carved high-backed seats, and tables of various 
shapes. The beds were usually cribs filled with straw, 
but there were also beds with posts and curtains. The 
floor of the great hall, covered with straw, often furnished 
a sleeping-place for the men ; and a log for a pillow and a 
skin or cloak for a covering were considered sufficient. 
The Saxons had candlesticks of various descriptions and 
lanterns of horn. Drinking-cups were usually made of 
horn, and some were richly ornamented with silver. 
Grates for fires were unknown ; the fire was made on the 
floor, and cooking- vessels hung from a tripod. 

Amusemeilts. — The out-door sports were hunting, 
hawking, and fishing ; and every man might hunt on his 
own land. The in-door games were chess, backgammon, 
dice, juggling, dancing, and singing. A labouring-man was 
disgraced amongst his fellows if he could not sing to the 
harp. At the festive board the drinking horn and harp 
were handed round, and every man was expected to do 
justice to both. The games of children were much like 
the present. 



Language and Literature. 

As the Saxons came from diflerent districts, there were 
diiterent dialects of their language in use, but in course of 
time the term Anglo-Saxon designated the speech of the 
whole people. This language furnishes most of the words 
we now use. About three words out of every four now in 
use are derived fi^om the Anglo-Saxon. 

Most of the authors of this period wrote their books in 



42 HISTOEY OF EXaLAND. 

Latin. The earliest writer was Gildas, a Briton, a native 
of a town now called Dumbarton, Scotland, who lived in 
the early part of the sixth century. He wrote a ' History 
of the Britons.' 

Nennius, another Briton of the same period, wrote a 
book in Latin similar to that of Gildas. 

The venerable Bede (672-735), a native of Jarrow and 
a Saxon, wrote several works in Latin, of which the most 
important is his ' Ecclesiastical History of England.' His last 
work was the translation of the Gospel of St. John into his 
native tongue. 

Csedmon, a monk of Whitby, who died about 680 a.d., 
is the earliest Saxon writer whose work has come down to 
us. He wrote sacred poetry. King Alfred translated 
several works into Anglo-Saxon ; amongst them may be 
mentioned portions of the Scriptures and Bede's History. 

There was very little learning in this period, and that 
little was only found amongst the clergy. Libraries were 
few and small ; if a rich man possessed ten volumes, it was 
thought a wonderful thing. The highest laymen did not 
know how to write, and very few of them could read. All 
charters were signed with a cross. 



SAXON PEEIOD. 43 



CHIEF EVENTS AND DATES. 



Arrival of tlie Saxons ...... 449 a.d. 

Introduction of Christianity by Augustine . 597 

JFirst Arrival of the Danes 787 

Egbert's Supremacy 827 

Alfred's Eetreat to Athelney, and subsequent 

Defeat of Guthrum 878 

The name ' King of England ' first assumed by 

Edward the Elder 901 

The Bible first Translated into Anglo-Saxon . 937 
Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury . . . 958 
Wolves' Heads given as Tribute by the "Welsh . 960 
Tax called Dane-gelt first levied . . . 991 
Massacre of Danes by Ethelred .... 1002 
Sweyn, King of Denmark, conquers England .1013 
Division of England between Canute and Ed- 
mund Ironside . . . . . .1016 

Battle of Stamford Bridge 1066 

Battle of Hastings 1068 



GENEALOGICAL TABLES, 

CONNECTING THE SAXON AND NORMAN LINES. 

THE SAXON LINE, 
EGEEBT. 

I 
ETHELWULF. 

\ 

I j ^ ^1 

ETHELBALD. ETHELBERT. ETHELEED I. ALFRED the GREAT. 

I 
EDWARD the ELDER. 

I 

I i I 

ATHELSTAN. EDMUND I. EDRED. 



EDWY. EDGAR. 



EDWARD the Martyr. ETHELRED II. m. 1. Elfleda. 

I 2. EMMA of No rmandy 

I I I 

EDMUND IRONSIDE, EDWARD the Confessor, Alfred, 

(by Elfleda.) (by Emma.) (by Emma.) 

Edmund. Edwaed the Outlaw. 



Edgar Atheling. Margaret, m. Malcolm III. of Scotland. 

1 
Matilda, m. HENRY I. of England. 



THE NORMAN LINE. 
EoLLO the Sea King, first Duke of Normandy, d. 931 a.d. 

William. 
I ^ 

ElCHARD I. 



BiCHARD II. EMMA, m. Ethelred II. of 

I England. 



Richard III. Robert (the devil). 

WILLIAM I. (the Conqueror), m. Matilda of Flanders. 



Robert. Richard. WILLIAM II. HENRY I. Adela, 

(Rufus). m. Matilda m. Stephen 

of Scotland. of Blois. 

I 
STEPHEN. 



WILLIAM I. 46 



THE NORMAN KINGS, 

1066 A.D.— 1154 A.D. 



WILLIAM 1 1066 A.D. 

WILLIAM II. (son) ' 1087 „ 

HENRY I. (brother) 1100 „ 

STEPHEN (nephew) . . . . . 1135 „ 



WILLIAM I. (the Conqueror). 
Born 1027 A.D. Began to Reign 1066 A.D. Died 1087 A.D. 



Gonduct of the Saxons. 
Completion of the Conquest. 
Wars in France. 



Death, burial, and character. 
Eesults of the Norman Conquest. 
Miscellaneous events and facts. 



Conduct of the Saxons. 

After the Battle of Hastings, the Saxons retired to 
London. The Witan immediately assembled, and elected 
Edgar Atheling king ; but disunion soon crept in amongst 
them. The old jealousies between the north and the south 
were too strong, and Edwin and Morcar, the two powerful 
northern earls, withdrew from London, and left the southern 
Saxons to shift for themselves. 

In the meanwhile, William, disappointed and angry on 
account of the conduct of the Witan, ravaged the southern 
counties, marched across the Thames, and pitched his 
camp at Berkhampstead, for the purpose of cutting off 
London from the north. The Norman horse advanced to 
the walls of London, and prevented supplies of men and 
provisions from entering it. There was now no valiant 
leader amongst the Saxons ; Stigand, Archbishop of 
Canterbury, was the only man of spirit amongst them, but 
his influence was small. Without enthusiasm, without a 



46 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

fitting leader, a victorious enemy at the very walls of tlie 
city, and the prospect of famine within, the Saxons sub- 
mitted. A deputation of the chief nobles and citizens of 
London, headed by Edgar Atheling and Stigand, waited 
upon William at Berkhampstead, offered him the crown of 
England, and did homage to him as their king. William 
in return promised to respect their laws and confirm their 
old liberties. Henceforth, opposition to the Conqueror w^s 
treason. Christmas Day was chosen for the coronation. 
Surrounded with his soldiers, the Duke marched to West- 
minster Abbey, and was there anointed king by Aldred, 
Archbishop of York. A sad tragedy, however, darkened 
that day of apparent rejoicing. When the Saxons were 
asked whether they were willing to receive the Duke of 
Normandy for king, their shouts of assent were mistaken 
by the Norman horsemen outside for the war-cry of insur- 
rection, and immediately the unarmed bystanders were cut 
down, the houses around were set on fire, and the city 
plundered. William himself trembled within the sacred 
building as the cries of the mjurdered people rent the air, 
and the coronation service was hurried over in the quickest 
possible manner. Thus a Norman duke ascended the 
English throne ; but many years passed before his sway 
over the whole country was acknowledged. 

Completion of the Conquest. 

William commenced his reign with a desire to win the 
affection of the English. He promoted marriages between 
his countrymen and his new subjects, and endeavoured to 
rule according to the old Saxon laws and customs. With 
the lands belonging to the Crown and with the forfeited 
estates of Harold's family he rewarded his followers, with- 
out robbing his new subjects of their property. The 
northern earls sent in their submission, and everything 
promised to turn out peacefully. Having fortified London, 
Dover, and other important places, he went back to Nor- 
mandy, Easter, 1067 a.d., accompanied by the chief 
English nobles, among whom were Edgar Atheling, Edwin 



WILLIAM I. 47 

and Morcar, and the primate Stigand. In his absence, the 
government of England was left in the hands of his half- 
brother, Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, and William Fitz- 
Osborn. These rulers had none of the prudence and 
moderation of William ; and their cruelty, insolence, and 
rapacity were copied by the soldiery under their com- 
mand. Houses were pillaged ; the women were insulted , 
and 'the whole people treated as a conquered and despised 
race. Insurrections followed this conduct, and the cry of 
' Down with the Normans ! ' was heard everywhere. 
William hurried back from Normandy, December 2, 1067, 
determined to crush the English with severe measures. 
Exeter, Oxford, Warwick, Derby, Nottingham, and Lincoln 
were reduced, and castles were erected to ensure their 
submission. On the borders of Wales the same success 
attended the Norman arms. William pushed to the north, 
defeated the Northumbrians on the banks of the Humber, 
and captured York. The chief nobles fled to the court of 
Malcolm of Scotland for protection. The Normans, flushed 
with success, hastened to Durham, where on the very night 
of their arrival every man of them was cut to pieces. In 
the same year, the sons of Harold came over from Ireland, 
and called to arms the men of Devonshire, but the rising 
proved fruitless. 

A Danish fleet of two hundred and forty ships sailed 
up the Humber to aid the Northumbrians, ^^oq 
The exiled nobles and Scottish allies came from 

A.D. 

the north, and the two united forces captured 
York and put the Norman garrison to the sword. William 
again marched northwards, and took a terrible revenge. 
The whole country between the Humber and the Tyne 
Was scoured and laid waste by his troops. Villages wer<? 
burnt, the crops were destroyed, the peasantry were 
slaughtered, and for a space of sixty miles the coiuitry was 
made a desert. For nine years, famine reigned throughout 
that district, and destroyed those whom the sword had 
spared. 

In other parts of England opposition to the Normans 
still continued. Frequent rebellions gave to the Conqueror 



48 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

the opportunity of seizing estates which he bestowed upon 
his countrymen. The bravest of the Enghsh withdrew to 
the woods and carried on a guerilla warfare against the 
invaders of their homes. Hereward, a Saxon Thane, 
established a * camp of refuge ' in the Isle of Ely, and was 
there joined by Stigand, Morcar, and others ; and thence 
he warred successfully against all the Normans in the 
neighbourhood. William, by building a causeway two miles 
across the marsh, captured this last refuge of English freedom. 
Hereward himself escaped, and continued to make such 
havoc amongst his enemies, that they gladly offered him 
peace on his own terms. He at last, however, fell a prey 
to Norman assassins. 'Had there been three such in 
England,' said a Norman poet, ' William could never have 
come there ; and, had Hereward lived, he would have 
driven out the invaders.' Morcar and other surviving 
leaders of the * camp of refuge ' were imprisoned for life. 

William was now at leisure to attend to Malcolm of 
Scotland. He advanced into Scotland for the purpose of 
punishing the King for his assistance to the Saxons ; but 
on the banks of the Tay Malcolm sent in his submission 
and acknowledged himself as a vassal of the 
English crown. Edgar Atheling, who was then 
at the Scottish court, gave up his pretensions to 
the throne of England on condition of receiving a mark a 
day from William ; and henceforth Edgar and the Con- 
queror lived as friends. 

Native opposition being now at an end, William was 

^ - enabled to visit Normandy. During his absence 

a conspiracy was made by the leading Normans 

to divide the kingdom amongst themselves. 

Waltheof, the son of Siward, the old Earl of Northumbria, 

the only Saxon noble high in William's favour, revealed 

the conspiracy, and the affair was at once crushed. 

Waltheof was afterwards accused of having a hand in the 

plot, and he was executed at Winchester after a year's 

imprisonment, 1075 a.d. 



WILLIAM I. 40 



Wars in France. 



William's reign in England, after the thorough subjuga- 
tion of the Saxons, was disturbed by the conduct of his 
sons. Before the battle of Hastings, Eobert, the eldest son, 
then only twelve years old, was appointed heir-apparent, in 
case his father should fall. As he grew up, he developed 
a character altogether unfitted to take the place of a ruler. 
In person he was short, fat, and bow-legged ; and his father 
called him Robert Curthose, or short legs. In disposition, 
he was easy-natured, careless, dissolute, and regardless of 
his dignity. His brothers made him the object of their 
jests and practical jokes, and on one occasion they so 
aroused his passion by throwing water over him, that with 
difficulty he was prevented from cutting them down with 
his sword. These family quarrels were increased by the 
whisper that William intended to divide the succession. 
The disaffected Norman barons made Robert their tool, 
and persuaded him to claim from his father the independent 
government of Normandy and Maine. His father at once 
refused this demand, and said, ' I do not intend to undress 
until I go to bed ! ' Angered by the refusal, Robert made 
war against his father, and attempted to surprise Rouen, 
the capital of Normandy. Failing in this attempt, he re- 
ceived from the King of France the border-castle of 
Gerberoi, from which he ravaged his father's dominions. 
An Anglo-Norman army besieged' this fortress in 1079, 
and during one of the attacks William was unhorsed and 
wounded by his son. Queen Matilda and the nobles inter- 
fered to stop the unnatural war, and, for a time, father and 
son were reconciled. 

In 1087, a war broke out between William and Philip I.^ 
King of France. The former surprised the town of Mantes, 
and gave it up to pillage and the flames. As William was 
riding round the town, his horse trod upon some Sept. 9, 
burning embers, and threw him violently against 1087 
the pommel of the saddle. Fever followed, and a.d, 
the injury proved fatal. 



50 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

Death, Burial, and Character. 

William died September 9, 1087 a.d., at the Abbey of 
St. Gervaise, near Rouen, in the sixtieth year of his age, 
and the twenty-first year of his reign. On his death- 
bed he bequeathed Normandy to Robert ; recommended 
William as his successor in England ; gave 5,000Z. to his 
youngest son Henry; and ordered his treasures to be 
divided among the churches, the poor, and his household. 

As soon as the king was dead, the courtiers mounted horse 
to put their castles in a state of defence ; the servants stripped 
the house of everything — arms, furniture, and dress — and 
fled; and the body was left naked in the deserted palace. 
A private gentleman paid the expenses of the funeral, but, 
as the corpse was about to be lowered into its grave at Caen, 
a man named Asselin Fitz-Arthur stepped forth and forbade 
the burial. * The land,' said he, ' where ye stand was once 
my father's house, which this man, when Duke of Nor- 
mandy, took forcibly from my father. I forbid, in God's 
behalf, that the body of the spoiler be covered with my 
turf, or buried in my inheritance ! ' The man's statements 
were proved to be true ; his claims were allowed ; and on 
the promise that the inheritance should be redeemed, the 
burial was allowed to proceed. 

In appearance, William was of middle height, stoutly 
made, with a high forehead and hawk-like eye. His 
broad, sinewy chest, and strength of arm, enabled him to 
bend on horseback a bow which common men could not 
draw on foot. In character, he was grave, stern, ambitious, 
courageous, and determined. His private life was very 
pure, and his attention to religious exercises very strict. 
He was pitiless and unscrupulous in his conduct to all 
who gainsayed his will, but generous to those that served 
him weU. 

His wife was Matilda, daughter of Baldwin Earl of 
Flanders. His children were — Robert Duke of Normandy ; 
Richard, killed by a stag in the New Forest ; William and 
Henry, who became kings successively ,• Adela, married to 
the Count of Blois, and several other daughters. 



WILLIAM I. 51 

Results of the Norman Conquest. 

It introduced into England a foreign dynasty and 
nobility, a new language, new laws and customs. The 
Saxon nobler were dispossessed of their lands, and Nor- 
man leaders became the barons of England. The feudal 
system, by which lands were held under the king, was 
developed and perfected. All the high offices in the 
Church and in the monasteries were filled by Normans, and 
the old English service-books and modes of conducting 
religious worship were put aside. Foreign churchmen 
brought into the coimtry an increase of papal power. All 
law business was carried on in the Norman-French 
language, and interpreters were employed between judges 
and people. A strife of races began which continued for 
more than two centuries, producing a mixed race and a 
mixed dialect, in both of which the Saxon element got by 
far the upper hand. 

The Normans introduced a higher civilisation, and con- 
nected England with the Continent. Their love of art, 
chivalry, and learning proved beneficial to the mechanical 
genius and bravery of the Saxon people. In short, ' to 
Normandy we owe the builder, the knight, the schoolman, 
and the statesman.' 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

The Feudal System. — It is most important to under- 
stand what this system was, as it influenced the social and 
political life of the English people down to the reign of 
Charles II. William introduced the system in its perfec- 
tion into this country. He, as conqueror, claimed tlie 
right of giving estates to whomsoever he pleased, on con- 
dition of receiving in return military service and aids ot 
money. The estate thus granted was called a feud or 
fief, and also a tenure ; the grantor was called the lord, 
and the receiver was called his vassal. The lord took the 
vassal under his protection and favour, and he, in return, 
promised to defend the person and family of his lord, and 
do him the necessary service. On account of this mutual 



52 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

obligation, the superior was called a liege lord, the vassal 
a liege man. The word liege is derived from the Latin 
ligare (to bind). The feudal baron became his lord's 
representative on his own estate, and lived like a petty 
king, granting portions of his estate to under-vassals, on 
conditions similar to those upon which he himself received 
the feud from his sovereign lord. There was thus a link 
of service connecting the king on his throne with the 
humblest freeman in the land. 

When an estate or feud was granted to any one, there 
were three ceremonies observed: — (1) Homage; 
(2) Fealty; (3) Investiture. Homage was the ex- 
pression of humble service and reverence by the vassal to 
his superior. This was done on bended knees, bare-headed, 
and ungirt, with hands joined together between the hands 
of his lord. Fealty was the promise of service on oath. 
Investiture was the ceremony of putting the vassal in pos- 
session of his estate, either symbolically, by the delivery of 
a piece of turf, a branch of a tree, &c., or by placing the 
tenant in actual possession. 

The services which a vassal was bound to give for his 
fief were called feudal incidents, and these were of various 
kinds, as military service, aids, reliefs, primer seisin, 
fines, escheats, wardship, and marriage. 

(1) Military service, or the obligation to attend the 
lord to the wars for forty days in each year, if required. 

(2) Aids were sums of money paid on three special 
occasions : — (a) making the lord's eldest son a knight ; 
(b) on the marriage of his eldest daughter ; (c) to ransom 
his person, if taken prisoner. 

(3) Reliefs were money payments, or otherwise, made 
by an heir on taking possession of a fief. 

(4) Primer seisin was an additional relief, which con- 
sisted of the payment of one year's profits of the land. 

(5) Fines were money payments to the king for permis- 
sion to alienate the estate. 



WILLIAM I. 



[51] 




William I. granting Lands in Richmondshire to Alan, Count of Brittany. 
(From Cotton MSS.) 



162] 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 




WILLIAM I. 63 

(6) Escheat was the return of a fief to the king on 
failure of heirs, or through treason or felony. 

(7) Wardship gave to the lord the right of holding the 
estate of an heir under age, the charge of his person, and 
the use of the profits of the fief. 

(8) Marriage was the right of a lord to dispose of his 
wards in marriage. Marriage without his consent was 
visited with heavy fines. 

Domesday Book. — In 1085 a.d, William ordered a 
survey to be made of all the lands in the kingdom. The 
commissioners sent out for this purpose were to enquire 
into the extent of land in each district, whether it was 
wood, meadow, pasture, or arable land, what was its 
value, and what were the numbers of freemen and slaves 
upon it. The counties of Northumberland, Durham, 
Cumberland, and parts of Westmoreland, Lancashire, and 
Monmouthshire, were not included in the survey. The 
book in which these results were recorded is called Domes- 
day Book, but the reason of this name is not very clear. 
Some suppose that it was so called from Domus Dei, the 
chapel in Winchester Cathedral where it is believed to 
have been kept ; or from doomsday, its decisions being as 
unalterable as those of the great book of doom, or judgment. 
This book is stiU preserved in the British Museum. From 
its contents we gather that the whole land was divided into 
60,000 and odd knights' fees, and -that the number of 
able-bodied men was 283,342, which, multiplied by five, 
would give a population, in round numbers, of 1,400,000. 
Allowing for omissions, we may place the number at 
2,000,000. The number of bond-men is estimated at 
25,000. 

The Curfew Bell was a custom introduced by William 
of ringing a bell at sunset in summer, and at eight o'clock 
in winter, as a signal for putting out all fires. This was 
not a mark of servitude, but, as houses were chiefly made 
of wood, it was necessary as a precaution against fire. The 
curfew (couvre feu) is still rung in some parts of England. 

The New Forest was a large hunting-ground in the 



54 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

neighbourliood of Winchester, which William formed for 
his favourite sport. It covered an extent of thirty miles. 
It was said that thirty villages were destroyed, and churches 
pulled down, in order to form the forest. It proved a very 
unfortunate place for the Conqueror's family. Two of his 
sons, Eichard and William, were killed there. 

The Cinque Ports were the chief maritime places, for- 
tified by the Conqueror to guard against invasion. They 
were Dover, Hastings, Romney, Hythe, and Sandwich. 
To these, Winchelsea and Rye were afterwards added. 

The Bayeux Tapestry, which represents in needlework 
the chief incidents of the Norman Conquest, is said to have 
been worked by Queen Matilda and her ladies. It is 
still preserved in the public library at Bayeux, and is 
sixty-eight yards long and nineteen inches wide. 



WILLIAM IL 



WILLIAM II. (Rufus). 
Born 1057 A.D. Began to Reign 1087 A.D. Died 1100 A.D. 



Revolt of the Nobles in favour 

of Eobert. 
Petty Wars with Scotland and 

Wales. 



Government under Ralph Flam- 
bard. 
Death and Character of Rufus. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



Revolt of Nobles in favour of Robert. 

William, the second son of the Conqueror, hastened to 
England on the death of his father, and vfas crowned at 
Winchester, through the influence of the Primate Lanfranc. 
Odo of Bayeux was jealous of the power of Lanfranc, and 
took the opportunity of a disputed succession to stir up a 
revolt of the chief nobles in favour of Robert. William 
appealed to the Englivsh portion of the population for aid, 
and promised to restore many of their lost rights and 
privileges. By their help, the revolt was crushed before 
Robert could cross the Channel. Odo was taken prisoner 
at the capture of Pevensey ; but the king trusting him to 
hold a parley with the besieged garrison of Rochester, he 
broke his word and again joined the rebellion. On the 
capture of the town, the English, remembering Odo's cruel 
government under the Conqueror, clamoured for his death ; 
but Norman influence saved his life. 

William's promise to the English was soon forgotten, but 
not so his vengeance against Robert. He invaded Nor- 
mandy, and, by the treachery of the barons, soon got pos- 
session of half the castles of that duchy. Robert kept on 
the war till the barons were tired of it, and then peace was 
made on condition that each should keep his own, even to 
the Norman castles which William held; that Robert's 
friends should receive back their estates ; and that if either 



66 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

died childless, England and Normandy should be re-united 
under the survivor. 

The only occasion on which the two brothers were agreed 
was when they joined to besiege their younger brother 
Henry in Mount St. Michel, off the coast of Normandy.. 
Henry was forced to surrender ; afterwards he wandered 
about penniless, often in want of food, always without a 
home, but biding his time for avenging the siege of his 
fortress. 

William did not keep his promise to Robert; so in 
1094 A.D. open war again broke out between the brothers. 

-__- Two years afterwards, the whole of Europe was 
ringing with the cry to arms to recover the Holy 
Sepulchre in Jerusalem from the hands of the 
Turks ; and Robert, fired with the new enthusiasm, offered 
to mortgage Normandy to William for five years for a sum 
of 10,000 marks. The offer was gladly accepted, and 
Robert marched to the Holy Land as a soldier of the Cross, 
to win the renown of a matchless knight. 

Petty Wars with Scotland and Wales. 

Malcolm Canmore of Scotland had married the sister of 
Edgar Atheling, and filled his court with Norman and 
English exiles. Taking advantage of William's absence in 
Normandy in 1091, he invaded the northern counties. A 
continuance of the war thus begun was prevented by the 
submission and homage of Malcolm. The planting of an 
English colony at Carlisle was a fresh cause of quarrel 
between the two kings ; and when Malcolm next visited 
the English court, he was required to stand a trial before 
his peers. This he refused to do ; but when again he in- 
vaded Northumbria, Earl Mowbray surprised and slew him. 

William was not so successful in Wales. The Welsh 
were in the habit of pillaging the border counties, and 
retiring on the approach of the heavy-armed English troops. 
Invasions of their mountainous country always ended in 
losses and failure, and William was obliged to content him- 
self with strengthening the border castles. 



WILLIAM II. 67 

Government under Ralph Flambard. 

William's chief adviser in the beginning of his reign was 
Archbishop Lanfranc, but after his death in 1089 a.d. the 
king's rapacious, lustful, and cruel disposition showed 
itself stronger than ever. A new adviser was found in 
Bralph Flambard, a Norman ecclesiastic of worthless cha- 
racter, who had settled in England under Edward the Con- 
fessor. He taught the king to consider bishoprics as 
ordinary fiefs which he might give or keep at his pleasure ; 
and the consequence was, that when a bishop or abbot died, 
the post was kept vacant for years, and its income went into 
the king's pocket. The archbishopric of Canterbury, for 
instance, was kept vacant for four years, and when Anselm 
was appointed to succeed Lanfranc, he was expected to 
give a handsome fine to the king. Ealph, full of mischief, 
suggested many other unjust ways of filling the king's purse, 
and this conduct brought down upon his head the curses 
of rich and poor. At court, too, he was so hated that a 
plot to carry him off to sea was set on foot ; but by means 
of bribes he escaped out of the hands of his captors. He 
afterwards received the rich bishopric of Durham as a 
reward for his services. 

Death and Character of Eufus. 

He resembled his father in activity, strength of limb, 
and in the sternness of his face. His complexion was 
ruddy, his hair red, his eyes blood-shot : hence his name 
Eufus, the Red. He stammered in his speech. In war he 
was brave and active ; but, as a king, he was tyrannical, 
greedy of money, untruthful, dishonest, licentious, 
and a drunkard. On the morning of August 2, - ^'' 
1100 A.D., he went out to hunt in the New 

. - AD 

Forest, having drunk rather harder than usual. 
That evening his body was found in the forest, with an 
arrow in his heart, by some charcoal-burners, who took it 
in a cart to Winchester. The belief of the time was, that a 
knight named Sir Walter Tyrrell had accidentally shot the 
4 



58 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

king ; but Tyrrell, years afterwards, wlien he had nothing 
to hope or fear, denied that he was in the same part of the 
forest as the king. Prince Henry was in the forest that 
day, and no one had a greater interest in his brother's 
death than himself. However, the life of Rufiis was not 
such as men cared to value, and no one mourned his death 
or honoui'ed his tomb. He was never mamed. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 
The Crusades began in this reign, and continued for 
inR'i ^^0^^ ^^^^ hundred years. About the year 
1065 A.D., the Turks became masters of Jeru- 

A D 

salem, and treated the Christian pilgrims who 
visited the Holy City with great cruelty. One of these 
pilgrims, Peter the Hermit, a French monk, was so in- 
dignant at the conduct of the Turks, that, on his return, 
he applied to Pope Urban II. for permission to preach 
throughout Christendom a holy war against them. Men 
of all ranks flew to arms for the purpose of driving the 
infidels out of the Holy Land, and an undisciplined mul- 
titude, under Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penni- 

inQ*! ^^^^^ ^®* ^^* '^^ *^® ^^^^ Crusade; but most of 

them fell by famine or the sword. The chivalry 

of Europe followed afterwards under Godfrey of 

Bouillon, Robert of Normandy, and others ; and after hard 

inQQ ^g-'^^i^Sj Jerusalem was captured, and Godfrey 
made kinoj. These wars were called Crusades 

A.D. 

from the figure of a cross which the volunteers 
for these expeditions wore on the lefl shoulder. 

Westminster Hall, a stone bridge over the Thames, 
and a wall round the Tower of London, were built in this 
reign. 

In the last year of William's reign, the sea overflowed 
the estates of Earl Godwin, in Kent, causing great destruc- 
tion to men and cattle, and forming what are now called 
the Goodwin Sands. 



HENRY I. 59 



fiENRY I. (Beauclerk). 
Born 1070 A.D. Began to Eeign 1100 A.D. Died 1135 A.D. 



Accession and Marriage. 
Conquest of N'ormandy. 
Loss of the * White Ship.' 



Dispute with the Pope upon In- 
Death and Character, [vestiture. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



Accession and Marriage. 

Henry, the youngest son of the Conqueror, hurried to 
Winchester as soon as he heard of his brother's death, and 
claimed the royal treasures. His eldest brother Robert 
was away in the Crusades, and there was no one at home 
to oppose his claim to the throne. As Anselm, the primate, 
was an exile on the Continent, the coronation was per- 
formed' by the Bishop of London, two days after the death 
of Rufus. Henry's first object was to make as many 
friends as possible before his brother should return. He 
won over the clergy by filling up the vacant livings ; he 
bribed the nobles with grants of money ; and pleased all 
classes with promises of reform and the restoration of the 
laws of Edward the Confessor. To secure further the 
goodwill of his English subjects, he married Matilda, the 
daughter of Malcolm of Scotland, and niece of Edgar 
Atheling. This lady was known among the people as ' the 
good Queen Maud.' After giving birth to two children, 
she retired to a convent, where she spent her last years in 
the cultivation of church music, in the study of old 
authors, and in ministering to the wants of the sick and 
poor. 

Henry recalled Anselm from exile, and omitted nothing 
to obtain the goodwill of all the people. 



60 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 

Conquest of Normandy, 

Eobert returned from the Crusades to find himself again 
cheated of his right to the crown of England. He, how- 
ever, at once made preparations to cross the Channel, and 

^^-^ arrived at Portsmouth 1101 a.d. Henry now 
found out the wisdom of the conduct which he 

A D 

had followed in securing the goodwill of the 
English ; for, whilst very many Norman nobles sided with 
Robert, the great body of the people rallied round the king, 
For several days the two armies stood facing each other ; 
but, as a great battle would have been the ruin of Norman 
influence in the country, the Primate Anselm and some of 
the barons interfered, and persuaded the two princes to 
make up their diiFerences. In the treaty that followed, it 
was agreed that Henry should retain the kingdom of 
England, and give up the whole of Normandy to his 
brother, in addition to a yearly pension of 3,000 marks, 
and pardon those barons who had taken up arms in his 
cause. As soon as Robert returned to his duchy, Henry, 
in spite of the treaty, took the first opportunity of punish- 
ing his brother's friends. Robert came back to remonstrate 
with the king for this breach of faith, but sundry hints 
about his own personal safety so alarmed him that he gave 
up his pension in order to get quickly and safely out of the 
country. 

Robert's idleness, profligacy, and imprudence made the 

Norman court a place of the wildest disorder. It is said 

that he himself was plundered till he lacked bread to eat, 

and was forced to lie in bed fi-ora the want of clothes to 

put on. So disgraceful had the government of the duchy 

become, that many Norman barons invited Henry over in 

1104 A.D. to improve the state of things. Nothing loth, the 

next year the king sent an army across the Channel, and 

proposed that the duke should give up the government of 

the duchy, on condition of receiving a suitable income in 

llflfi I'eturn. Robert's refusal brought on war, and at 

^ ^ the battle of Tenchebrai, he fell into his brother's 

hands, who took him to England, and confineil 



HENEY I. 61 

him in Cardiff Castle till the day of his death, 1135 a.d. 
The charge against Henry of putting out his brother's eyes 
rests on no sufficient authority. 

Normandy, however, was not left in the quiet possession 
of Henry. Eobert's son William could not forget his own 
rights or his father's wrongs, and he found strong supporters 
of his claims in the King of France, the Earl of Flanders, 
and the Earl of Anjou. The Earl of Anjou withdrew his 
support on the marriage of his daughter to Henry's only 
son William, but the King of France and his allies invaded 
the Norman duchy and fought a fierce battle ^^^q 
with the English king at BrenviUe, near Kouen. 
Henry, however, won the victory, and his nephew 
escaped with the greatest difiiculty. The king spent the 
following year in strengthening his position in Normandy, 
and securing the succession of his son, who was then 
eighteen years old. 

Story of the * White Ship.' 

Having settled matters in Normandy, Henry and his 
son Prince William set out for their return to -i-inr^ 
England from the port of Barfleur. The prince 
set sail, accompanied by a great number of 
unruly courtiers, in a vessel called the * Blanche Nef ' 
('White Ship'), under the command of Fitz- Stephen — the 
son of the man who had guided the ship of William the 
Conqueror at the time of the invasion. The courtiers 
amused themselves by making the sailors drink hard before 
they started, and dismissed the priests, who came to bless 
their voyage, with scoffing laughter. Night came on before 
they left the shore, and there was no moon. The more pru- 
dent had quitted the ship, but still a crowd of nearly 300 
remained. The fifty rowers, flushed with wine, pulled 
hard, but the helmsman was unfitted for his post, and, in 
the darkness, steered the ship on a sunken rock off Alder- 
ney. A boat was at once lowered, and the prince and a 
few nobles put off from the sinking vessel ; but hearing 
the cries of his half-sister, he returned to save her. A 



62 HISTOEY O'F ENGLAND. 

desperate crowd jumped into the boat ; it was swamped, 
and all perished. Out of about 300, only two escaped 
going down with the unfortunate ship — Fitz- Stephen, the 
captain, and a butcher of Eouen. Of these two, the captain 
drowned himself when he heard the fate of his prince, and 
the other alone survived to tell the tale. For some days no 
one dared to inform the king ; at last a page was sent weep- 
ing to his feet to say that the ' White Ship ' had gone down 
with all on board. The king fainted at the news, and long 
mourned the loss of the heir of all his hopes. It is said 
that he was never known to smile again. 

The death of Henry's only son inspired his nephew Wil- 
liam with the hope of winning back all his rights. He was now 
Count of Flanders, and a relative by marriage of the King 

1 1 0Q ^^ France, but he received no encouragement from 
his uncle. In 1 128 a.d., he was mortally wounded, 
in a skirmish with the Landgrave of Alsace, before 
the gates of Alost. 

Investiture Dispute. 

When Henry came to the throne, Anselm, the primate, 
was an exile in France. On his return, he was requested 
to do homage to the king in feudal fashion for the lands of 
his see, and receive the ceremony of investiture in the 
usual way. Every bishop, like a baron, was accustomed 
to do homage for the fiefs which he received, and the king 
placed in his hands the ring and crosier, as symbols of 
office and possession of the fiefs, in the same way as he gave 
arms, &c., to a military tenant. This custom made the 
king the real head of the Church. Pope Gregory YII., in 
1074 A.D., forbade the practice, claiming for the Church 
independence from State control. Anselm, in obedience 
to the Pope's edict, flatly refused to do homage to the king 
or to receive from him investiture ; and a long dispute took 
place between him and Henry, during which- the arch- 
il na bishop passed three years again in exile. The 
dispute was brought to an end by Henry consent- 
ing to give up the right of investing with the ring 
and crosier of office, while the Pope agreed that bishops 



HENEY I. 63 

and abbots should do homage for the lands of their sees. 
This compromise gave to the crown the right of nominat- 
ing bishops and abbots, and secured for the Church greater 
independence. 

Death and Character. 

After the drowning of Prince "William, Henry's sole 
object was to secure the crown for his onJy daughter 
Matilda, who had been married to the Emperor Henrj V. 
of Germany, but had returned in 1126 a.d. to her father's 
court, a widow and childless. The barons, in a great 
council, swore to maintain her rights, and her cousin 
Stephen, Earl of Blois, was one of the first to take the oath 
of allegiance to her. The following year, she married 
Geoffrey, eldest son of the Earl of Anjou. Henry lived to 
see her the mother of three sons ; but a surfeit of lampreys 
after a day's hunting brought on an acute fever, of 
which he died at St. Denis, in Normandy. His tjoc' 
body was taken to England, and buried in Eeading 
Abbey, which he had founded. By his first wife 
Matilda, he had two children — William and Matilda ; by 
his second wife Adelais, daughter of the Duke of Louvain, 
he had none. 

Henry was a man of middle height, with high forehead, 
dark complexion, and quiet, thoughtful eyes. He was un- 
forgiving, dissimulating, ambitious,- jealous, and profligate. 
He possessed a good understanding, and was well fitted to 
rule. His love for his children and fondness for learninsx 
were strong points in his character. The translation of 
*-^sop's Fables' won for him the name of *Beauclerk,' or 
* fine scholar.' 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

A colony of Flemings was planted by Henry I. at 
Haverfordwest, in Pembrokeshire. These people were skil- 
ful in the manufacture of woollen cloths, and to them we owe 
the introduction of this branch of industry into England. 

A standard of measure was fixed by the king. The 



64 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

length of his own arm determined the measure of the 
English yard. 

Payments of taxes were made in money, instead of in 
kind. The splendid cathedral of Salisbury was erected ; 
and the first arched bridge, called Bow Bridge, from its 
shape, was built over the Lea. 

In 1118, the military and religious Order of Knights 
Templars was instituted at Jerusalem for the protection of 
pilgrims on the high roads. 

In 1124, the Knights Hospitallers, of the same city, 
originally established for the care of sick pilgrims, became 
a military body, under the name of the Knights of St. John. 
This order spread over the whole of Europe, and, after the 
loss of Palestine, took up its headquarters at Cyprus, and 
subsequently at Rhodes. 



STEPHEN. 66 



STEPHEN Earl of Blois). 
Born 1105 A.D. Began to Eeign 1135 A.D. Died 1154 A.D. 

Usurpation of the Throne. I Civil War. 
Invasion of the Scots. | Death and Character, 

Miscellaneous Pacts. 



Usurpation of the Throne. 

Stephen, Earl of Blois, was the son of Adela, the 
daughter of William the Conqueror. His uncle Henry, the 
late king, had brought him to England at an early age, and 
had treated him with marked favour. Although he had 
sworn with the other barons to maintain the right of his 
cousin Matilda, he hurried ofF from Henry's death-bed to 
secure the throne for himself, and was crowned 
at London a few weeks after his uncle's death, ^^ni 
There were several things in his favour. The 

. A.D. 

barons in Normandy hated Matilda's husband, 
Geoiirey of Anjou, and those in England disliked the 
rule of a woman, and wished to have at their head a 
soldier who could put down the disorderly outbreaks that 
followed Henry's death, and lead his nobles in time of 
danger. Stephen, besides, was popular with the barons, 
and his brother Henry, Bishop of Winchester, used his 
great influence among the clergy in his favour. To secure 
his usurped throne, he promised to maintain the rights of 
the Church, and granted to it new privileges ; he allowed 
the barons to build castles upon their estates ; and promised 
to observe all the old laws and good customs of his prede- 
cessors. The King of France, too, readily accepted his 
homage for Normandy ; the Pope sent a brief sanctioning 
the choice of the nation; and Flemish and Breton 
mercenaries were at hand to fight for him. Geoffrey of 
Anjou invaded Normandy on behalf of his wife, but he 



66 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

was driven back with loss. For years the duchy was torn 
by factions, till, at length, Matilda's rights were acl^now- 
ledged. 

Invasion of the Scots. 

David King of Scotland, the uncle of Matilda, was the 

^^nn fi^st to take up arms in her cause. Remembering 

his oath of homap;e, he invaded the northern 

A.D. . 

counties, but Stephen bought him off by the 
grant of the lordship of Huntingdon and the castle of Car- 
lisle. Matilda implored him to take up arms again on her 
behalf, and the Anglo-Norman barons, who had fled to 
the Lowlands from Stephen's strong rule, urged him to 
overthrow the usurper. In 1138 a.d., he mustered a great 
force of the Highland clans and Picts of Gal way, and, aided 
by great numbers of English and Norman mercenaries, 
he penetrated as far as Yorkshire. This invasion was 
marked by great cruelty. The army of invaders was, for 
the most part, composed of men as savage and wild as 
Tartars. They plundered churches, killed men and chil- 
dren, and drove the women before them in droves, like so 
many cattle, and treated them in every way with the 
greatest barbarity. Like cowards, they retreated as soon 
as Stephen marched against them, and he was unable to 
pursue them through the desolated counties for want of 
provisions. When the Scots again returned, the barons 
and gentry of the North determined to fight for them- 
selves. Thurstan, the aged Archbishop of York, sum- 
moned the people of every parish by the sign of the cross 
to rally for the defence of their homes. Near 
Northallerton the two armies met. To inspirit 

A.D. . 

the English peasantry and yeomanry, the banners 
of three Saxon saints were fastened to a mast and set up on 
a four-wheeled car. Above the flags was a crucifix, and 
just below it was a silver box containing the consecrated 
wafer. The English gathered round this standard, and, 
like a rock, hurled back the rushing, yelling Picts. The 
pursuit was short, but bloody : 12,000 Scots were killed. 
This battle is known . as the Battle of the Standard, 



STEPHEN. 67 

Peace was concluded in 1140 a.d. It was agreed that 
Prince Henry, the son of David, should receiva Northum- 
berland in fief, excepting the fortresses of Bamborough 
and Newcastle, and that the Scots should give hostages for 
the maintenance of peace. 

Civil War. 

Soon after the Battle of the Standard, Stephen quarrelled 
with Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, whose family was very 
powerful and influential. The influence of the- Church was 
on the side of Roger, and even Henry, the Bishop of Win- 
chester, and now the Pope's* legate, was opposed to his bro- 
ther Stephen. The friends of Matilda were only waiting for 
an opportunity of this kind to rise in arms. Robert Earl of 
Gloucester, half-brother of Matilda, raised an army in Nor- 
mandy, and, accompanied by his sister, landed 
at Arundel. Leaving Matilda in Arundel Castle, -j i qA 
he at once pushed on to Bristol, where his chief 
strength lay. Stephen marched at once against 
her, but, treacherously advised by his brother Henry, he 
allowed her to join Robert of Gloucester. The civil war 
that followed was desolating and horrible, on account of 
the great number of mercenaries employed on both sides. 
These foreigners used all kinds of tortures against their 
enemies, and cared most to enrich themselves with plunder. 
One of these adventurers took the castle of Devizes from 
the king, and held it for himself, and then carried on a 
little war on his own account. He used to smear his 
prisoners with honey, and hang them up in the sun, to 
be stung to death by bees. Fortunately, his barbarity 
was soon brought to an end, for, in an attack on Marl- 
borough Castle, he was taken prisoner, and hanged. 
In the second year of the war, Stephen was captured 
in the Battle of Lincoln, and confined in ...- 
Bristol Castle. A great council, held at "Win- 
chester, declared Matilda queen of England ; but 
the men of Kent and Archbishop Theobald remained 
faithful to their king. Matilda, however, was never 
crowned ; her haughty manner and rude language drove 



68 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 

her best friends from her side, and her heavy fines upon 
the citizen^ of London for their former support of Stephen 
excited their disaffection. News soon came that Stephen's 
wife was marching against London ; the citizens ran to 
arms -and attacked the palace, and Matilda was glad to save 
herself by a hasty flight' to Oxford. Suspecting the friend- 
ship of the Bishop of Winchester, she attacked his fortified 
palace, and, though successful at first, her army was put to 
flight, and her brother, Eobert of Gloucester, was 
taken prisoner. Stephen was then exchanged for 
Eobert, and again mounted the throne. For 
twelve years longer the war continued, without anything 
of importance taking place. Once, in 1142, Matilda was 
shut up in Oxford, and only escaped capture by crossing 
the snow-covered meadows at night dressed in white. For 
five years afterwards she continued to rule the west of 
England, while the east acknowledged the authority of 
Stephen ; but the death of Eobert, Milo Earl of Hereford, 
and other staunch supporters, caused her to retire to 
Normandy, 1147 a.d. 

During all these years of strife the country was in a 
wretched condition. The land was full of castles, and the 
people in them were no better than armed banditti. Houses 
were plundered and towns set on fire, if their inhabitants 
could not pay the money which neighbouring robber-barons 
demanded of them. People were forced by all kinds of 
tortures to say where their treasures were concealed ; the 
land was left uncultivated, and starvation prevailed every- 
where. 

In 1151 Stephen asked Archbishop Theobold to conse- 
crate his eldest son Eustace as his successor. This the 
bishop refused to do, on the ground that the king, having 
usurped the throne, had no right to leave it to his son. 
Matilda's son Henry was now getting into manhood, and 
was sufficiently powerful to maintain his rights. On his 
father's death, in 1151, he became Duke of Normandy and 
Earl of Anjou, Maine, and Touraine ; and in the following 
year his marriage with Eleanor, the divorced wife of 
Louis VII. of France, and heiress pf Poitou and Aqui- 



STEPHEN. C9 

taine, greatly increased his power. In the next year he 
landed in England, to claim his mother's inherit- ^ ^ eq 
ance, and the two armies met at Wallingford, but 
no battle took place, for the adherents of both 
chiefs were thoroughly tired of the quarrel. Just at this time, 
too, Eustace, the king's son, suddenly died, and Stephen, 
having now no one to fight for, agreed to a peace. It was 
settled that Stephen should wear the crown as long as he 
lived, and that Henry should receive the homage of the 
barons as heir-apparent. 

Death and Character. 

Stephen died about a year after this treaty. The ambi- 
tion that led him to usurp the throne was the Oct. 
greatest flaw in his character. He was hand- 1154 
some in person ; strong, active, and courageous ; a.d. 
and open, genial, and generous. 

His wife Matilda, daughter of Eustace Count of 
Boulogne, died in 1153 ; and his children were Eustace, 
William, and Mary, who married the Count of Flanders. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

A great number of castles, variously estimated from 126 
to 1,115, were built in this reign. 

The Second Crusade was preached by St. Bernard, 
1147. 

Towards the end of the reign, Vicarius, a lawyer of 
Bologna, delivered lectures at Oxford on the Canon and 
Civil Law. 

Tilbury Fort Avas erected in 1146 ; and sugar is first said 
to have been imported. 



70 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



Social Condition of the People in the 
NORMAN PERIOD. 



Differences of Rank. — The power of the king during 
this period was very great. "We have seen how William I. 
as conqueror, claimed the right of disposing of the whole 
soil of the country, and distributed it among his followers 
under the feudal system. This proprietorship of the land 
made the Anglo-Norman kings almost absolute. The soil 
of the country was divided into portions, called knights' 
fees — that is, such an amount of land as would be deemed 
sufficient to maintain an armed knight in time of war. Of 
these fees, the entire number was 60,215 ; thus the sove- 
reign, on any emergency, could call to his aid so many 
armed knights. The number of knights' fees given to each 
baron, or tenant-in- chief, as he was called, depended upon 
the sovereign's pleasure ; some had only one, others pos- 
sessed a great many. The holders of large estates sublet 
portions of them to others, and in this way a great many of 
the Saxon thanes kept possession of their lands. These 
latter were called franklins by the Normans, and they 
again sublet portions to others, called socmen. The Saxon 
serfs were called villeins. When the king wanted an 
army, he summoned his barons, and these called together 
the franklins, and these again collected the socmen, 
and thus a large body of men were soon ready for ser- 
vice. 

As the government was in the hands of a foreign race, 
the conquered English people suffered great hardships and 
oppression. The object of the king seemed to be to wring 
as much money out of the people as he possibly could, and 
the nobles, to satisfy his demands, fleeced all those under 



SOCIAL LIFE IN THE NOEMAN PEEIOD. 71 

them. It was long before king and nobles forgot that they 
belonged to a foreign race, and made themselves one with 
the English people. 

Food, — The Normans were not such great eaters as the 
Saxons, but their food was more varied and more daintily 
prepared. The number of their meals, and the time when 
they were taken, are shown by the common proverb : — 

To rise at five, to dine at nine, 
To sup at five, to bed at nine. 
Makes a man live to ninety-nine. 

The peacock and the crane were favourite dishes, and the 
boar's head was considered a royal dainty. The finest 
wheat was used for the bread of the higher classes, but the 
common people were content to be fed with brown bread, 
made of rye, oats, and barley. The names we now give to 
various kinds of meats show that they formed at first the 
dishes of the rich. The live animal is known by a Saxon 
name, but its flesh, when prepared for the table, is dis- 
tinguished by a Norman word. Thus, OX and COW are 
Saxon, but beef, Norman ; calf is Saxon, while veal is 
Norman ; sheep is Saxon, but mutton Norman ; in the 
same manner, we have swine and pork, deer and venison, 
fowl and pullet. 

The rich drank spiced wines and mead ; and the poorer 
classes, cider, perry, and ale. The wine, however, was 
often of very poor quality. It is described by one writer 
of the time to have been so full of dregs, and so gi-easy and 
tasting of pitch, that the nobles sometimes drank it with 
eyes shut and teeth closed. 

Dress. — The general dress of the Normans consisted of 
the tunic, the cloak, the long tight hose, the leg bandages, 
and shoes or short boots. Their head-covering was 
something like the modern Scotch bonnet. The Saxons 
dressed as before the Conquest, and were distinguished by 
their long flowing locks and beard. The Normans, on 
their first arrival, were closely shaven, both on the face and 
the back of the head, so that they looked much like monks. 
But in a few years they discontinued this fashion, and 



7'1 mSTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

imitated the Saxons to such an extent that the clergf 
denounced their long hair as sinful. 

In the reign of Rufus and Henry I., tunics with long 
flowing sleeves, and shoes with long toes of every kind 
of shape became the fashion. The dress of the females 
was much like that of the Saxons, only the gown was called 
a robe, and the veil a couvre-chef (or head- covering), from 
which we get our word kerchief. They, like the males, 
indulged in long sleeves almost reaching to the ground. 
The hair was long, and plaited in two braids, which hung 
down the back ; sometimes it was covered by the kerchief, 
which was brought together under the chin, and made the 
wearer look like a man. 

Dwellings and Furniture. — As the Normans came 
into a conquered country, their first thought was to build 
dwellings for safety ; and to ensure this, they erected 
strong castles, and surrounded them with thick walls and a 
ditch. These buildings usually consisted of three divi- 
sions, viz. the inner and outer courts, and the keep which 
formed the baron's residence. The entrance to the castle 
was guarded by the barbican, which, in most cases, was a 
strong gateway in front of the main gate. The passage 
through the gateway could be closed, in addition to the 
gates, by a spiked iron grating, called a portcullis, which 
was let down from above, and the archway was pierced 
with holes, through which melted lead and boiling pitch 
could be poured upon an enemy. The grey ruins of many 
of these buildings, found here and there throughout the 
country, give us a good idea of the massive strength of 
the homes of the nobility in the feudal times. 

As the Norman barons spent much of their'time in the 
open air, they furnished their dwellings very meagrely. 
The chief room was the large hall, and this simply con- 
tained a long rough table and some rude benches. Car- 
pets were unknown ; but the floors were covered with 
straw in winter, and grass in summer. The usual 
sleeping place was a bench, or the floor covered with a 
mat. The lord's bedroom was furnished with a few stools, 



SOCIAL LIFE m THE NORMAi^ PEEIOD. [71] 




1. The Dungeon. 

2. Chapel. 

3. Stable. 



Norman Castle. 

4. Inner Bailey. 

5. Outer Bailey. 

6. Barbican. 



7. Mount. 

8. Soldiers' Lodgings 



The Mount is supposed to be the Court-hill, where the Lord dispensed justice, 
and ^Yhere also it was executed. 



[721 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 




SOCIAL LIFE IN THE NOEMAN PERIOD. 73 

couches, and a crib containing a straw bed, and the ladies 
of the family were similarly supplied. From the scanty 
furniture of the homes of the rich, we can imagine what 
those of the poor must have been. The houses of the 
latter were small rude cabins, built of wood, and plastered 
with mud, and scarcely containing anything but an iron 
pot, a pitcher, and a log or two. 

The castles and churches of this period were built 
according to the Norman style of architecture, of which the 
characteristic is the rounded arch. 

Amusements. — The Normans were fond of out-door 
sports. The tournament or joust was their chief amuse- 
ment. This was a kind of mock fight, Avhich took place 
within a large enclosure, called the lists. The nobles sat 
round on raised galleries, and the common people crowded 
outside the barriers, to witness the courage and skill of the 
contending knights. At each end of the lists, tents were 
pitched for the rival combatants; and when the trumpet 
gave the signal for the onset, the armour-clad knights 
rushed to the attack. The weapons were usually blunted 
lances, but sometimes they contended with sharp weapons, 
as in real war, and then the sport often ended in blood- 
shed and death. 

Sometimes two sides were formed, each consisting of 
many knights, and this feature of the tournament was 
called the melee. At the end of the contest, the victors 
received the rewards of their gallantry at the hands of 
the * Queen of Love and Beauty ' — a lady who had been 
elected to preside over the sports of the day. 

Hunting was a very general amusement of the upper 
classes. The out-door sports of the lower classes were . 
archery, bull-baiting, and playing at quarter-staff. Cock- 
fighting was at that time confined to children, and Shrove 
Tuesday was the favourite day for the sport. 

The chief in-door amusement was the performance of 
some dramatic incident by travelling players. Such exhi^ 
bitions were often rude in language and coarse in manner, 
and the clergy endeavoured to supplant them by the in- 



74 HISTOEY OF ENQLAND. 

trodiiction of the religious drama — the origin of miracle 
and mystery plays, which were founded on Scripture facts 
and incidents in the lives of saints. Gambling, jug£7ling, 
mimicry, and dancing were favourite in-door amuse- 
ments. 

Language and Literature. — The Saxon language con- 
tinued to be spoken by the masses of the people, while 
their conquerors spoke French. The latter, in consequence, 
was the language of the courts of law, which still retain 
many traces of this fact. Between the two languages there 
soon grew up a mixed dialect, the ' lingua franca,' as it has 
been called, which expanded at length into the English lan- 
guage. But during this early Norman period, the governors 
and governed were to each other in language like the Eng- 
lish and the people of India of our own time. Even as late 
as the early part of the fourteenth century, public speakers 
were sometimes obliged to give the same speech to the same 
audience in three languages — ^Latin, French, and English. 
Latin was the language of the Church, of the schools, and 
generally of the learned. The mixed dialect that grew up 
in this period is called semi- Saxon — a form of English 
which continued until the death of King John.* 

The Normans introduced the use of surnames, which 
were taken from some personal quality, or trade, or from 
some peculiarity, as Eedhead, Butcher, Curthose. Some 
were formed by adding son to the Christian name, as 
Johnson. The Celtic Mac, as Macpherson; the O, as 
O'Connell ; and the Norman Fitz, as Fitzwilliam, mean the 
same as son. 

The literature of the time was confined chiefly to the 
clergy. The following are the leading authors of the 
period, who all wrote in Latin :— 

Lanfranc (1005-1089), succeeded Stigand as Archbishop 
of Canterbury : wrote several religious works. 

Ingulf (1030-1109), Abbot of Croyland : wrote the 
* History of Croy land Abbey.' 

' See par. ' Language/ p. 143. 



SOCIAL LIFE IN THE NOEMAN PERIOD. 



75 



Simeon of Durham (1061-1131), a monk: wrote a 
history of England from 616 to 1130, and also a 
history of Durham Cathedral. 

Ordericus Vitalis (1075-1132), a Norman monk: wrote 
an ecclesiastical history, in which there are many particulars 
relating to England. 

William of Malmesbury (1095-1150), a monk : wrote 
a ' History of the Kings of England,' and other chro- 
nicles. 

Henry of Huntingdon (1100-1168), Archdeacon of 
Huntingdon : wrote a history of England to 1154. 

Geoffrey of Monmouth, who died 1130: wrote Latin 
chronicles. 

The Saxon Chronicle was a work compiled from the 
registers kept in the monasteries, which recorded events 
from Alfred's time to the death of Stephen. 



LEADINa. DATES OF THE NORMAN PERIOD. 



GENERAL EVENTS. 


A.D. 




North of England laid waste . 


. 1069 . 


Wm. I. 


Conspiracy of the Norman Barons against 




William . , . . . 


. 1073 


i> 


Tower of London built 


. 1080 


» 


Domesday Book compiled . 


. 1080-6 


>j 


First Crusade proposed 


1095 . 


Wm. II. 


Normandy conquered by Henry I. . 


1106 


Hen. I. 


Order of Knights Templars founded . 


. 1118 


jj 


Prince "William drowned . 


. 1120 


!> 


Matilda lands . . . . 


1139 . 


Stephkk 


Prince Henry invades England 


1153 


» 



76 



HISTOKY OP ENGLAND. 



BATTLES, ETC. 






A.D. 


Battle of Hastings .... 


1066. 


Siege of Gerberoi . . 


1079. 


Battle of Tenchebrai .... 


1106 


,, Brenville .... 


1119 


,, the Standard 


il38 


,, Lincoln .... 


. lUl 


,, Winchester .... 


. 1141 


Siege of Oxford 


, 1142. 



HENKY IT. 77 



PLANTAGENET LINE. 

1154 A.D. to 1485 A.D.— 331 Years. 14 Kings. 
PLANTAGENET KINGS PROPER. 



A.D. 

HENRY II. . . .1154 
RICHARD I. . . .1189 

JOHN 1199 

HENRY III. . . .1216 



A.D. 

EDWARD I. . . . 1272 

EDWARD 11. . . . 1307 

EDWARD III. . . .1327 

RICHARD II. . . . 1377 



HENRY II. (Curtmantle). 
Born 1133 A.D. Began to Reign 1154 A.D. Died 1189 A.D. 



Henry's Accession and Power. 
Thomas a Becket. 



Eebellion of Henry's Sons. 
Death and Character. 



Conquest of Ireland. Miscellaneous Facts. 



Henry's Accession and Power. 

Henry II., the son of Matilda and Geoffrey of Anjou, was 
the first of the Plantagenet line of kings. The family 
name of Plantagenet was given to the first Earl of Anjou, 
Henry's great-grandfather, because he was accustomed to 
wear in his cap a sprig of broom, which, in the French 
language, was called plante-de-genet, from the Latin planta 
genista. At twenty-one years of age he ascended the throne 
of England, already in possession of great power, and with 
prospects most favourable. From his mother he inherited 
Normandy ; through his father he obtained Anjou, Touraine, 
and Maine ; and by his marriage with Eleanor of Aqui- 
taine, the divorced wife of Louis of France, he added to 
his other dominions all the provinces of France extending 
from the river Loire to the Pyrenees. In later years, the 
marriage of his son Geoffrey with the Duke of Bretagne's 



78 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

only daughter put that province also into his power, and 
then nearly one-half of France was under his rule. 

Henry began his reign by ridding the country of all the 
foreign mercenaries, who had been brought in during the 
late civil war, and by curbing the power of the nobility. 
The numerous castles built in the time of Stephen were 
destroyed ; order was restored in the kingdom by the ap- 
pointment of royal commissioners to administer justice ; 
and the goodwill of the people was gained by the grant of 
charters to many of the cities and chief towns. 

Thomas a Becket. 

Henry's chief adviser during the first six years of his 
reign was Thomas a Becket. Becket's father, Gilbert, was 
a London merchant, of Norman descent, and at one time 
held the office of Port-reeve, or Mayor, of London. Thomas, 
the eldest son, was born in 1118, and was educated, first at 
Merton Abbey, in Surrey, and then at Paris. He entered 
the service of Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, and 
his industry and talent won for him the post of Archdeacon 
of Canterbury. When Henry came to the throne, the aged 
Theobald introduced him to the king's notice, who appointed 
him chancellor and tutor to his son. The chancellor's 
office was one of great dignity. He was the keeper of the 
king's seal, without which all charters and treaties were 
invalid ; he had the chief management of foreign affairs ; 
he distributed the royal alms, managed vacant Church 
livings, and was the king's most secret and trusty coun- 
sellor. Becket rose high in Henry's favour. A tall, 
handsome man, eloquent and witty, fond of all games of 
skill and sport, he seemed born for a court. His style of 
living was magnificent and luxurious ; the younger nobility 
flocked to his palace, and his table was always crowded 
with guests. 

Ever since the time of Dunstan, the Church had been 
steadily increasing in power and independence. Under 
the Norman kings, its influence and authority grew rapidly, 
so much so that the clergy considered themselves entirely 
independent of the State, and responsible only to their own 



HENRY II. 79 

laws and the Pope. The chief officers of the Government 
and the great lords were always opposed to these claims, 
and quarrels in consequence were very frequent. 

When Theobald died, in 1162, Henry resolved to make 
Becket archbishop of Canterbury, thinking that he would 
help him in checking the power of the clergy. As chan- 
cellor, Becket sided with his royal master on this question, 
since his duty called him to uphold the king's cause. But 
from the day of his consecration as archbishop (June 3, 
11G2 A.D.), Becket became a changed man. His former 
magnificence was laid aside ; his palace was no longer the 
abode of the young and the gay ; and luxury gave way to 
simplicity and self-denial. He wore sackcloth next his 
skin, lived on the commonest food, submitted himself to 
strict discipline, and thus obtained from the common people 
the name and respect of a saint. Alive to the important 
duties of his sacred office, he resigned his chancellorship, 
and devoted himself to the cause of the Church. Henry 
was bitterly disappointed at this conduct. Coolness sprang 
up between the two friends, and very soon the greatest 
dislike took the place of the warmest friendship. 

A dispute arose between the king and the archbishop 
concerning the trial of clergymen guilty of crime. The latter 
claimed to be tried in the Church courts, no matter what 
the nature of the offence might be, while, on the other 
hand, the king demanded that they should be tried for 
criminal offences before the lay courts of the land. About 
this time, there were many serious crimes committed by 
different clergymen for which the heaviest punishment 
of the Church tribunals was far too light. Henry, in con- 
sequence, summoned a council at Westminster, in 1163, 
and demanded of the bishops present that they should 
observe the customs of the realm, and surrender guilty 
clergy to the law courts. They consented to do so, * saving 
the rights of their own order.' This answer so dis- 
satisfied the king that a more formal council was ■t-icd. 
summoned the following year at Clarendon, in 
Wilts, and there the respective rights of the Church 
and the State were stated in sixteen articles or laws, kn^wn 
5 



80 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

as the Constitutions of Clarendon. These laws were in the 
king's favour. Becket at first refused to agree to them ; but 
on the threat of violence from some of the barons, he yielded. 
The Pope, however, refused to acknowledge the ' Consti- 
tutions,' and freed Becket from his promise of obedience. 
The quarrel with the king broke out again with greater 
force. Henry called a council at Northampton, with the 
view of crushing the archbishop, and the latter, believing 
his life to be in danger, fled to France, and put himself 
under the protection of the Pope. 

For six years Becket remained an exile. His character 
increased in sternness ; his haughty spirit remained 
unbroken ; his claims were put forth as boldly as ever. 
At length a reconciliation was made between him and 
Henry, through the mediation of Louis VII, of France. 
The cause of quarrel was left unsettled. Becket was al- 
lowed to return to England without any mention of the 
Constitutions of Clarendon. His journey to Canterbury 
was one long triumphal procession ; the people shouted, 
' Blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord ! ' 
His exile, however, had taught him nothing. Before he 
set foot on English ground, he issued an excommunication 
against the bishops of York, London, and Salisbury, 
because they had dared, at the king's request, to crown 
Prince Henry during his exile. When the king heard of 
this insolence, he cried out in a fit of passion, ' Is there no 
one in my kingdom who will rid me of this turbulent, 
base-born priest ? ' Four knights immediately left Nor- 
Dec. 29, mandy for England, went straight to Canter- 

1170 bury, and murdered the archbishop on the steps 

A.D. of the altar of the cathedral. 

The murder of Becket was the worst thing that could 
have happened for Henry's cause. In order to obtain 
absolution for the rash words which led to the crime, the 
king promised to abolish all customs hostile to the Church, 
and to maintain 200 knights in the Holy Land for a year. 
Two years later, when attacked by his sons and the King 
of Scotland, he did penance at Becket's tomb, and sub- 
mitted to be scourged by the clergy of the cathedral. 



HENRY II. 81 

The four knights who committed the murder were allowed 
to atone for the deed by a pilgrimage to Palestine, where 
they all died. Becket was canonised as a saint and martyr 
by the Pope in 1173 a.d., and for centuries afterwards 
his tomb was regarded as sacred, and thousands of pilgrims 
visited it every year. 

Conquest of Ireland. 

The conquest of Ireland is one of the most important 
events of this reign. The island was known to the Eomans 
by the name of Hibernia, but they never attempted to add 
it to their empire. About the middle of the fifth century, 
St. Patrick began to preach Christianity there, and suc- 
ceeded in destroying Druidism, which had found in the 
island its last stronghold, r- During the Saxon period, 
Ireland was noted for its schools of learning, and was then 
known as the * Island of Saints.' The Danes, or Ostmen, 
as they were called, ravaged the country, but their in- 
vasion left it unchanged. A few cities, however, as 
Dublin, Waterford, and Limerick, were colonised by these 
Ostmen, and in the time of Henry II. they had grown into 
some importance. The natives, though Christianised, con- 
tinued very rude and barbarous. The men wore long 
yellow hair in tangled masses over their shoulders, and a 
jacket of sheepskin adorned with patches of various colours. 
They usually went about with an axe, which was used, 
like the modern shillelagh, on the slightest provocation. 
Their houses were huts of wood and wickerwork. The 
chief, who could not sleep in a bed when he came to the 
English court, was a fair sample of his countrymen. Like 
the Welsh, they were very fond of music, and excelled in 
the use of the harp. 

William the Conqueror intended to carry his arms into 
Ireland, had he lived long enough. The Irish pirates had 
often ravaged the English coasts, and carried off many 
prisoners, whom they sold as slaves. William Rufus once 
said, as he stood on the coast of Wales, that he would 
bridge St. George's Channel with a bridge of ships. In the 



82 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

year 1154 a.d., application was made to Pope Adrian IV. — 
the only Englishman ever Bishop of Rome — for a grant of 
the island to the English crown. The grant was made on 
the understanding that the king should make the natives 
pay yearly to the Eoman see a penny from every house, 
and put down all vice. It was no easy thing, however, to 
take possession of the country, and years passed away before 
the project was put into execution. 

Quarrels amongst the native princes gave to the English 
king the opportunity he wished for. Ireland at that time 
had settled down into five kingdoms — Ulster, Leinster, 
Connaught, Munster, and Meath — each of which was 
governed by a native prince, of whom one was styled 
Ardriagh, or war-king, a term corresponding to the Saxon 
Bretwalda. Dermot, King of Leinster, had run away with 
the wife of O'Ruarc, Prince of Leitrim, and was driven 
from his possessions by the King of Connaught. Coming 
to Henry, he offered to hold Leinster as an English fief, 
if the king would assist him to regain it. Henry gave per- 
mission to any of his -subjects who liked to join Dermot. 
Strongbow, Earl of Pembroke, offered his services on the 
promise of receiving Dermot's daughter Eva in marriage, 
and the succession of Leinster as a dowry. Three other 
adventurers — Eobert Fitz-Stephen, Maurice Fitz-Gerald, 
and Maurice de Prendergast — joined the expedition. In 
May 1169 a.d., Fitz-Stephen landed near Wexford with a 
force of 4G0 men, and was at- once joined by 500 men under 
Dermot. The town immediately surrendered, and Dermot 
soon recovered his kingdom. In the following year 
Strongbow landed with 1,200 men, and captured Water- 
ford and Dublin. A confederate Irish army under the 
King of Connaught, assisted by a Norwegian fleet from th^ 
Isle of Man, made a gallant effort to drive the invaders out 
of Dublin, but the natives, unprotected with armour, had 
little chance against the mail-clad Norman soldiers. Six 
hundred of the latter were sufficient to put to flight 30,000 
Irish. Strongbow had become King of Leinster without 
Henry's permission ; bnt, feeling himself unable to main- 
tain himself in opposition to the natives, he hurried to 



HENEY II. 83 

England and promised to surrender Dublin and all the 
fortified post? of Leinster to the king, and hold the province 
as a fief of the English crown. Henry and the earl set 
sail for Ireland from Milford Haven, with a fleet of 400 
ships, and a force of 500 knights and many 
archers, and landed near Waterford. All the --J- 
princes and chiefs, excepting those of Ulster, sent 
in their submission, and did homage to Henry in 
Dublin for their lands. The laws of Ireland remained un- 
changed, except amongst the English settlers, who lived in 
the district called the English Pale, which consisted of 
Dublin, Meath, Leinster, and the country from "Waterford 
to Dungarvan, This territory was strongly protected by a 
line of fortresses and palisaded redoubts — hence its Norman 
name of Pal, or the Pale. Beyond the Pale, the English 
authority Vv^as simply nominal. Henry spent the winter 
in the island, and returned to England, April 1172, with 
the new title of ' Lord of Ireland.' 

Bebellion of Henry's Sons. 

As a great part of France belonged to the King of 
England, it was the policy of the French monarch to stir up 
strife in Henry's family, in order to weaken his power. He 
therefore encouraged the sons of the English king — Henry, 
Richard, and Geoffrey — to claim portions of their father's 
possessions, and make war upon him in case of refusal. 
Henry's wife Eleanor and the King of Scotland joined in 
the intrigue, and several of the nobility in England and 
Normandy were ready to take up arms against their sove- 
reign. In the war that followed, the cause of Henry 
triumphed both in England and France. After forcing 
King Louis to retreat, Henry, sad at heart on account of 
his sons' conduct, did penance at Becket's tomb, in the sum- 
mer of 1174 A.D,, by walking barefoot to the shrine of the 
' Martyr,' and allowing the monks of the abbey to scourge 
him there with knotted cords. The same day, the Scotch 
king, William the Lion, was surprised at Alnwick and cap- 
tured. The defeat of the Scots brought the war to an 



34 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

end, and peace was made, September 1174 a.d. William 
the Lion did homage for his kingdom, and Henry's sons 
were allowed certain castles in France ; but Eleanor the 
Queen paid for her disloyalty by a long imprisonment of 
twelve years. 

In 1183 A.D. war again broke out between the king and 
his sons. In the midst of it, Prince Henry was stricken 
down with fever, and, feeling the approach of death, ho 
implored his father to visit him and grant him forgiveness. 
The king sent him a ring in token of pardon, but feai 
of treachery kept him away from his son's death-bed. 
Geoffrey then made peace with his father ; and three years 
afterwards he died. Eichard, the third son, again joined 
the King of France in a war against his father, and forced 
him to make a humiliating peace, 1189 a.d. 

Death and Character. 

At Henry's own request, a list of the barons who had 
joined Eichard against him was given into his hands. 
The first name that met his eye was that of the only son 
whom he still loved and trusted — John. That one name 
was enough : grief brought on a fever, of which he died at 
the castle of Chinon, in Normandy, exclaiming, * Cursed 
be the day on which I was born, and cursed of 

^JqJ Grod the children I leave behind me ! ' His body 
was buried in the Abbey of Fontevraud ; and as it 
lay there in state, Eichard came to look upon the 
dead face of the father whom he had so wronged in life. 

Henry's features were those of his mother's family. He 
was a man of middle size, and, on the whole, very much 
like William the Conqueror in person. He was ambitious 
and crafty ; able and energetic ; but very passionate and 
unhappy in domestic life. To win success was his chief 
object in life, no matter by what means. England flourished 
under his rule, and the administration of justice was, greatly 
improved. 

Of his five sons — William, Henry, Eichard, GeofFr ey, and 
John — only Eichard and John survived him. He had 



HENRY II. 



85 



three daughters, of whom Maud married the Duke of 
Saxony, whose son William was the first Duke of Bruns- 
wick, and hence the ancestor of the present royal family of 
England ; and Joan married the King of Sicily. 




Penance of Henry II. before Becket's Shrine. 
(From an Ancient Painting on G-lass.) 



Miscellaneous Facts. 

Several changes were made for the better administration 
of justice in this reign. The highest judicial court under 
the Norman kings was called the King's Court, or Curia 
Regis, and was composed of the bishops, barons, and chief 
officers of State. On ordinary occasions the judges in this 



86 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

coui-t were the chief justiciary, tlie chancellor, the treasurer, 
and other great officers. The lesser courts were the same 
as in Saxon times, only they were subject to the Curia 
Kegis. In course of time it was found necessary to divide 
the King's Court : so the Court of Exchequer was formed 
in the reign of Henry I., the Court of King's Bench in 
the reign of Henry II., and that of Common PleaS in the 
reign of Eichard I. The Court of Exchequer decided all 
causes relating to the royal revenue ; it was so called from 
the chequered cloth, resembling a chess-board, whicli covered 
the table there, and on which, when certain of the king's 
accounts were made up, the sums were marked and scored 
by counters. The Court of King's Bench heard principally 
criminal causes, and such as related to the controlling of 
inferior courts : it received its name because the king used 
to sit there in person. The Court of Common Pleas, or 
common complaints, was for trials of disputes between 
subject and subject. 

In 1176 A.D. the kingdom was divided into six circuits, 
and three justices appointed to each, in order to save 
suitors the trouble and expense of attending the King's 
Court. These officers were called the Justices in Eyre, 
or itinerant justices. 

The Grand Assize was another institution of this reign. 
Since the Conquest, disputes about the ownership of land had 
been usually settled by the duel ; but Henry II. introduced 
the Grand Assize, by which disputants might decide their 
case, if they chose to do so, instead of by wager of battle. 
According to this institution, the sheriff summoned four 
knights of the county or neighbourhood, who were to elect 
twelve others from the district, and these sixteen were to 
declare upon oath with whom the right of the disputed 
property lay. The present ' grand jury ' sprang from this 
custom. 

Scutage, or escuage, was a money payment to the king 
instead of personal service. It originated in 1159 a.d., 
when Henry, on account of the extent of his dominions, 
freed his vassals from personal service in distant parts, on 
condition of receiving money payments. 



HENEY II. 87 

Commerce increased in this reign. The Crusades 
brought the produce of the East to the West, and spices, 
gems, rich cloths, and gold, were consequently sent to 
London. England exported flesh, herrings, oysters, lead, 
tin, skins, and cloths. In 1177 a.d., glass was used for 
windows in private houses. London became the capital, 
instead of Winchester, which had been nearly destroyed in 
the civil war of the previous reign. 

The Constitutions of Clarendon provided: — 1. That 
the clergy should no longer be protected by the ecclesiastical 
courts. 2. That clergy of rank should not leave the realm 
without the king's permission. 3. That laymen should not 
be proceeded against in bishops' courts. 4. That the king's 
tenants should not be excomm-ymicated, nor their lands 
placed under an interdict, without the king's consent. 
5. That appeals from the spiritual courts might be made 
to the king. 6. That the higher clergy holding lands of the 
king should perform all the rights and customs of their fief. 
7. That chattels forfeited to the king should not be pro- 
tected in churchyards. 8. That church dignitaries should 
be elected in the king's chapel, with the king's consent, and 
do homage and fealty before consecration. 9. That villeins 
should not be ordained without the consent of their lord. 



H1S.T0EY OF ENGLAND. 



BICHAED I. (Coeur de Lion, or the Lion-hearted). 
Born 1167 A.D. Began to Reign 1189 A.D. Died 1199 A.D 



Accession. 

Massacre of the Jews. 

The Third Crusade. [ment. 

Richard's Eeturn and Imprison- 



Wars in France. 
Death and Character. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



Eichard's Accession. Treatment of the Jews. 

KiCHARD, eldest surviving son of Henry II., and already 

Duke of Aquitaine, was crowned at West- 

'iiqq' iiiinster. The sight of his father's corpse, on 

the way to the Abbey of Fontevraud, had made 

him penitent for his rebellious conduct, and he 

showed his sorrow by keeping the old servants of the 

crown at their posts, or promoting them. 

The Jews suffered terribly in the beginning of this reign. 
Although they were not on a footing of equality with the 
rest of the people, and were treated! as aliens, yet they had 
multiplied and grown so rich as to become the money-lenders 
of the nation. High and low regarded them with fear and 
hatred; stories of their cruelties to Christian children 
passed from one to another ; and the crusading spirit, which 
led men abroad against the infidel, roused men's hatred 
against unbelievers at home. On the king's coronation, 
some Jews, bearing rich presents, went to the abbey, in 
order to obtain his favour. They were driven back with 
blows, set upon by the mob, and several of them murdered 
on the spot. The Jewish quarter of the city was imme- 
diately attacked, plundered, and set on fire, and neither age 
nor sex was spared in the cruel onset. A day passed 
before the rioters could be stopped, but no one was 
punished for the crime. Thus encouraged or allowed, the 
murderous spirit spread through the country, and Lynn^ 



RICHAED I. 89 

Dunstaple, Stamford, Norwich, Lincoln, and York, became 
the scenes of rapine aad butchery. At York a frightful 
tragedy took place. Five hundred unfortunate Jews took 
refuge in the castle, and were besieged by the townspeople. 
They offered money for their lives, but the crowd outside 
clamoured for blood. Seeing no hope of escape, each mar- 
ried man slew his wife and children, and then plunged the 
weapon into his own breast ; the survivors shut themselves 
up with their treasures, and set fire to the building. A fine 
was levied by the king for the disorders that followed, but 
the murderers escaped punishment. 

The Third Crusade. 

Eichard's chief ambition was to win glory in the Holy 
Land. As soon as the coronation had taken place, mea- 
sures were at once set on foot to get money for a crusading 
expedition. The crown lands, honours, and offices of State 
were put up for sale ; sheriffs and their officers were re-- 
moved, that their places might be sold ; the right of supe- 
riority over the crown of Scotland was given up for 10,000 
marks; and the chancellorship of the kingdom was sold 
to William Longchamp, Bishop of Ely, for 3,000 marks. 
The king felt no shame in this ; he even said he would sell 
London itself, if he could find a buyer. Having by these 
means raised a large army, he set sail from Dover, leaving 
the kingdom under the regency of Longchamp, and joined 
Philip Augustus of France at Yezelai, on the borders of 
Burgundy, where the united forces amounted to - - q^v 
100,000 men. Leaving Marseilles, the kings 
went to Sicily, and there passed the winter. Here 
a quarrel arose between Philip and Eichard, because the 
English pillaged the town of Messina, in revenge for King 
Tancred's refusal to restore the dowry of Eichard's sister 
Joan, the widow of the late king. After leaving Sicily, 
another delay took place at Cyprus. Isaac, the king of the 
island, had thrown some shipwrecked crusaders into prison, 
and Eichard stayed to conquer the district and punish its 
ruler. Here, too, Eichard married Berengaria, the daughter 



30 HISTOEY OP ENGLAND. 

of the King of Navarre, who had accompanied him from 
Sicily. 

Twelve months after first setting out, the Enghsh king 
arrived at Acre. For two years the crusaders 

1191 had been trying to take that city, and already 

A.D. 200,000 men had fallen before its walls. Saladin, 
the Mahomedan King of Syria and Egypt, was 
watching the besiegers from the neighbouring hills, 
whence, at every opportunity, he bore down on the 
Christian lines, and spread destruction far and wide. 
Richard's arrival gave new spirit to the crusaders. His 
perseverance, courage, and bravery overcame all obstacles, 
and in three months the city was captured. Saladin made 
a truce with the conquerors, and withdrew his forces. 

After the fall of Acre, Philip returned to France, on the 
plea of ill-health. He swore friendship and peace with 
Richard, and left a division of his army under his com- 
mand. The English king was adored by the common 
soldiers for his bravery and liberality, but he was hated by 
the princes for his overbearing manner. Leopold Duke of 
Austria never forgave him for having torn down his flag 
from the gate of Acre. Philip's departure broke up the 
Christian army ; but Richard marched down the coast for 
Jerusalem at the head of 30,000 men. Saladin, unmindful 
of the truce, hung about him and harassed his line of march. 
At Ascalon and Jaffa the Christian army was only saved 
from destruction by Richard's skill and bravery. In spite 
of all opposition, he arrived within sight of Jerusalem ; but 
disease, desertion, and bloody victories ' had so reduced 
his army that an attack upon the Holy City was hope- 
less. He withdrew his forces to the sea-shore, and, after 
repulsing one last effort of the Turks to destroy him, he 
made a truce of three years with Saladin. It was agreed 
that pilgrims should be allowed to visit Jerusalem without 
being subject to insult and annoyance ; but Richard, receiv- 
ing bad news from England, was obliged to hurry 
"'^ home ; and so his foot never trod the Holy City. 
■ ' Long after his departure his name lived amongst 
the Saracens. Mothers quieted their children by crying, 



RICHAED I. 91 

^Hush! hush! King Eichard is coming for you!' If a 
horse started at any object by the wayside, its rider would 
say, ' What dost thou fear, fool ? Dost thou think King 
Richard is behind it ? ' 



Richard's Return and Imprisonment. 

During Eichard's absence, the government of England 
fell into great disorder, through the oppressive rule of 
Longchamp and the treacherous conduct of Earl John. 
This state of things was made known to the king in 
Palestine, and he prepared to return home with 
his queen and attendants. A storm separated ^ ^ qo 
him from the rest of his fleet, and drove his ship 
up the Adriatic, where he was wrecked off the 
coast of Istria. Knowing the bad feeling against him in 
Germany, on account of his quarrel with Leopold of Austria, 
he and his companions disguised themselves as pilgrims, 
and attempted in this way to pass through the country. 
Under the name of Hugh the Merchant, he reached the 
neighbourhood of Vienna, where fatigue compelled him to 
rest^awhile. Eumours of his landing had spread through- 
out the duchy, and when his page was seen in the market 
of Vienna buying provisions with foreign money, and 
carrying in his girdle the king's gloves, suspicion was 
aroused, the boy was seized, and Eichard's hiding-place 
discovered. The Duke of Austria took him prisoner, and 
afterwards, for 60,000Z., handed him over to the Emperor 
of Germany, Henry VI., who confined him for fourteen 
months in a castle in Tyrol. By degrees Eichard's cap- 
tivity became known, and though his brother John and 
Philip of France plotted to keep him in prison, the ■. =• qyi 
emperor released him on payment of a ransom of 
100,000 marks, which was raised by the taxa- 
tion of the English people.^ Eichard's return to England 

' The story of the discovery of Eichard's place of imprisonment 
by Blondel, the minstrel, singing near the castle a song known to 
the king, and which the latter answered from within, rests upon no 
authority, and may he considered as a pretty romance. 



92 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

upset the plans of his brother, who had done h^s best 
to usurp the throne, and who was at that very time in- 
triguing with Philip of France. John, however, was no 
match for Richard ; the Council deprived him of all his 
possessions for his unnatural conduct, but the king, at the 
earnest entreaty of his mother Eleanor, at last forgave him. 

Wars in France. Death and Character. 

The remainder of this reign was spent in profitless 

wars in France. Philip had taken possession of some 

castles in Normandy during Richard's absence, and the 

latter, as soon as affairs were settled in England, crossed 

the Channel, and forced the King of France to withdraw 

Q from those places. The war between the two 

kings was carried on very slowly, from lack of 

funds, and after the defeat of the French at 

Gisors, a truce was concluded. 

During these quarrels, the people of England were heavily 
taxed. So great was the discontent in London on this ac- 
count, that 50,000 men, under the leadership of William 
Fitz-Osbert, or Longbeard, threatened a revolt. Long- 
beard, however, and nine of his companions, were seized 
and executed at Tyburn. 

Three months after the truce with Philip, Richard met 

with his death in a petty quarrel with one of his vassals, 

Vidomar, Viscount of Limoges, who had found a treasure 

upon his estate. Richard demanded the whole of it to be 

given up to him, and, on being refused, besieged Vidomar 

in the castle of Chaluz. One day, as the king was riding 

round the walls, an arrow from the ramparts struck him on 

the shoulder. The wound was not serious, but the unskilful 

way in which the arrow-head was taken out 

F^QQ ' brought on mortification, and death ensued in a 

few days. The archer, Gourdon , who sent the fatal 

missile, was brought to the dying king's bedside. 

' Wretch,' said the king, * what have I ever done to thee 

that thou shouldst seek my life ?' ' With your hand,' replied 

the archer, * you killed my father and my two brothers j I 



RICHAED I. 93 

am willing to suffer the greatest torment you can inflict, so 
that you die who have caused so many evils to mankind.' 
Richard, admiring the boldness of the man, and recalling his 
own violent life, said, * I forgive thee ! ' ' Loose his chains, 
and give him a hundred shillings ! ' The order, however, 
was not obeyed ; Gourdon was flayed alive, and then 
hanged. 

Richard was buried at the feet of his father at Fonte- 
vraud. Though he had reigned ten years, scarcely six 
months of that time was spent in England. He had no 
children by his wife Berengaria. In moral character, he was 
no better than William Rufus. His bravery, strength of 
body, and skill as a troubadour, made him a favourite hero 
of romance. He obtained the name of Coeur de Lion from 
his courage and muscular strength ; but though his warlike 
spirit checked for a time the Turkish power, and made 
him the prince and flower of knightsrerrant, it greatly 
impoverished his own country. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

The famous outlaw Robin Hood lived in this reign. In 
Sherwood Forest he took up his abode; and there he 
hunted the king's deer, and robbed all who came in his 
way. 

Coats of Al'ms now came into use. During the Crusades, 
armour-clad knights wore devices upon their shields, in 
order to be known in battle. Richard adopted for his 
device the three lions which are now seen in the royal 
arms of England. The motto ' Dieu et mon droit ' is said 
by some to have originated from these words having been 
Used by him as his watchword at the battle of Azotus, in 
Palestine. Others assign its adoption to Edward III., in 
reference to his claim to the French crown. 

The Mayor and aldermen of London are said to date 
from this reign. The first Mayor was Fitz-Alwyn. The 
title Lord Mayor was first given by Edward III. in 1354. 



94 HISTORY OIT ENGLAND. 



JOHN (Sansterre or lackland). 
Born 1166 A.D. Began to Reign 1199 A.D. Died 1216 A.D 



Accession. 

Prince Arthur. 

Loss of French Provinces. 

Quarrel with the Pope. 

War with Prance. 



Magna Charta. 
War with the Barons. 
Death and Character. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



Accession. Prince Arthur. Loss of French Provinces. 

John, Duke of Mortaigne, was the youngest son of Henry II. 
He was sumamed Sansterre or Lackland, because he held 
no fiefs of the crown, like his elder brothers. He was in 
Normandy when his brother died, but, hurrying over to 
England, he told the Council that Eichard had named him 
his successor, and, after a speech in his favour by the 

Archbishop of Canterbury, he was crowned at 
1 1 qq' Westminster. The rightful heir to the throne 

was Arthur, Duke of Bretas;ne, the son of John's 

A.D. ° 

elder brother Geoffrey, then twelve years old. 
As soon as Eichard died, the barons of Anjou, Maine, and 
Touraine appointed Arthur as their lord ; and Philip of 
France took up his cause and claimed for him all the Con- 
tinental possessions of the English crown. Philip, how- 
ever, was bribed to abandon Arthur's cause, and the latter 
became friendly with his uncle for a little while. In the 
meantime John, having divorced his first wife Joan, 
granddaughter of the famous Eobert of Gloucester, married 
Isabella of Angouleme, the affianced wife of the Earl of 
Marche, and thus raised up for himself another powerful 
enemy in France. Philip, glad of an opportunity of 
quarrelling with John, was easily persuaded by the Eail of 
Marche to renew hostilities. Arthur at once joined Philip. 
In an attempt to take the castle of Mirabeau, near 



JOHN. 9d 

Poitiers, where John's mother was staying, the young 
prince was taken prisoner. He was strictly con- ^ 
fined for a time in the castle of Eouen, but what 
eventually became of him, no one ever knew. It 
was popularly believed that John rowed up the Seine to 
the castle one dark night, accompanied by a couple of hired 
assassins, and having taken Arthur into the boat, they 
stabbed him, and threw his body, loaded with stones, into 
the river. Whether this is true or not, we cannot say ; 
but no mortal eye ever beheld the poor boy afterwards. 

John's guilt, however, was fully believed at the French 
court. Philip summoned him to answer before his peers 
of France the charge of murdering a vassal of the French 
crown, and a near relation of the king. To this summons 
he paid no attention. He was adjudged, therefore, guilty 
of the crime, and pronounced to have forfeited all his fiefs 
in France. Almost immediately every one of the English 
possessions in France, excepting Guienne and a part of 
Poitou, fell into the hands of the French king. 

Quarrel with the Pope. War with France. 

On the death 'of Herbert, Archbishop of Canterbury, the 
monks of the cathedral secretly elected their Superior to be 
his successor, and sent him off to Rome to obtain the 
Pope's confirmation. John ordered the monks to elect his 
friend John de Gray, Bishop of Norwich, to the vacant see, 
and he forthwith was sent to Rome. But the bishops of 
the province of Canterbury petitioned the Pope against 
both elections, on the ground that they had not been con- 
sulted. The Pope at that time was Innocent III., a man 
of great ability, jealous of his authority, and ambitious of 
power. He set aside the two elections, and recommended 
to the monks of Canterbury a learned Englishman, named 
Stephen Langton, who was then at Rome. The monks 
agreed to accept the Pope's choice, and a letter was sent by 
Innocent to the king, announcing Langton as the new arch- 
bishop. 

*rhe news lashed John into fury, and he swore that 



9S HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

Langton should never enter his dominions. He imme- 
diately sent armed men to Canterbury, who entered the 
monastery with drawn swords and forced the monks to 
depart forthwith. Innocent, on the other hand, threatened 
to place the country under an interdict, unless the king at 

once submitted. The threat was of no avail, and 

1208 the interdict was published, by which for six 

A.D. years the country was deprived of the privileges 

and comfort of religion. The churches were 
closed ; the bells were silent in the steeple ; churchyards 
were closed for burial, and the dead were thrown into un- 
consecrated ground without a prayer or any sacred rite. 
Only to infants and dying persons were the Sacraments 
allowed to be administered. John cared nothing about 
the interdict ; he plundered the clergy who obeyed it, and 
ordered the sheriffs to drive them out of the kingdom. 

It is remarkable that while the country was under an 
interdict John had his greatest successes in Scotland, 
Ireland, and Wales. In 1209 a.d. he made William King 
of Scotland do homage, and pay him a fine of 15,000 
marks. In 1210 a.d., he landed in Ireland, and received 
the homage of its chiefs. He divided the English province 
into counties, and established the Jaws of -England among 
those who had settled there. The following year he 
invaded Wales, and received the submission of Llewellyn 
and twenty-eight noble youths as hostages. 

As John continued indifferent to the interdict, the Pope 
pronounced sentence of excommunication against him, by 

which his subjects were absolved from their 
1212 allegiance, and the throne declared vacant. The 
A.D. Pontiff then empowered Philip of France to take 

the crown of England, and called upon all Christian 
princes to assist the enterprise. Though John had an army 
of 60,000 men under his command, he felt little confidence 
in their fidelity, and he became greatly alarmed at the 
preparations of the French king. The fleet of the Cinque 
Ports, indeed, was not idle. Dieppe and a few other 
places on the northern coast of France were burnt ; but 
this could not prevent an invasion. Thoroughly alarmed, 



JOHN. 97 

John sent a messenger to Rome, with offers of submission, 
and immediately Pandulf was sent as papal legate to 
England, to arrange matters with the king. Near Dover, 
the latter took off his crown, laid it at Pandulf s feet, and 
signed a document by which he granted to the Pope the 
kingdom of England and Ireland, and, in token of ^ qi o 
vassalage, promised to pay an annual sum of 1,000 
marks to the Holy See. 

On these conditions the excommunication and interdict 
were withdrawn, and Philip was ordered to give up the 
idea of invading England. This king, however, having 
spent much money in preparing to carry out the Pope's 
wishes, expressed his determination to go on with the 
enterprise, but on the refusal of his chief ally, the Earl of 
Flanders, to give any further assistance, he turned his 
arms against his territory, and ravaged it as far as the 
walls of Ghent. John sent out a fleet to assist the earl, 
which gained an important victory over the -in-io 
French at Damme, and thus preserved the in- 
dependence of Flanders. Encouraged by this 
success, the English king invaded France on the western 
side, while part of his forces joined his allies, the Earl of 
Flanders and Otho Emperor of Germany, on the north. 
Their defeat at Bouvines, between Lisle and -in-tA 
Tournay, compelled John to make a truce of 
five years, and he returned to England much dis- 
appointed. 

Magna Charta. 

John's rule had from the first been most oppressive. 
He broke the laws whenever it pleased him ; he trespassed 
upon the rights of the nobility and disgraced many of their 
homes. The common people were also treated with the 
greatest harshness, and the Jews especially suffered from 
his exactions. One of the latter people, living in Bristol, 
having refused to pay a demand of 10,000 marks, John 
threw him into prison, and ordered one of his teeth to be 



98 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

drawn daily until he should give up the money. The 
Jew lost seven teeth before he yielded. 

Discontent with the king's bad conduct and government 
became so general that the barons determined to check 
his tyranny. At a great meeting of bishops and barons, 
Stephen Langton, the Archbishop of Canterbury, made 
known the charter of liberties of Henry I. The assembly 
at once resolved to make it the basis of a demand for the 
redress of grievances, and at subsequent meetings at Bury 
St. Edmund's, London, and Stamford, they drew up a 
charter which they were determined the king should sign. 
John at first hesitated, for the purpose of gaining time, and 
at length refused to agree to the demands, exclaiming; 
' They may as well ask for my crown ! ' But the barons 
were determined, and having made Robert FitzWalter 
their leader, with the title of ' Marshal of the Army of God 
and of Holy Church,' they took possession of London, and 
made war against the king, in spite of the Pope's commands 
to the contrary. The loss of London brought John to his 
senses, and, seeing the hopelessness of opposition, he met 

the barons at Runnymede, between Windsor and 
-jT,-^' Staines, and there fixed his seal to the Magna 

Charta, a document ever memorable and famous 

A.D. 

as the charter of English liberties. 
Magna Charta was written in Latin, and is still pre- 
served in the British Museum. It has been ratifi-ed 
thirty-nine times by different monarchs of England ; the 
last one who did so was Henry VI. Its principal clauses 
relate:—!. To the Church. 2. To the barons. 3. To 
traders. 4. To freemen generally. The Church was to 
possess all her privileges ; the barons were protected from 
all unjust taxation ; London and other towns retained their 
privileges of trade ; and for fre'emen it was provided ' that 
no freeman should be imprisoned, or lose his freehold, or 
free customs, or be outlawed, or otherwise punished, but 
by the judgment of his peers or by the law of the land ; 
that justice should not be sold, or denied, or delayed ; that 
all men might travel out of the kingdom and return when 
they pleased.' 



JOHN. 99 



War with the Barons. Death and Character. 

After the meeting at Runnymede, John withdrew to the 
Isle of Wight, vowing revenge against his rebellious 
barons. Messengers were at once sent abroad to gather an 
army of mercenaries, and ambassadors were despatched to 
the Pope to solicit his condemnation of the Charter. The 
Pope pronounced the document to be null and void, inas- 
much as the realm belonged to him. Bands of needy 
adventurers flocked over from the Continent, and enabled 
John to take the field against his own subjects. The lands 
of the barons were ravaged far and wide ; castles, towns, 
and villages were given to the flames, and everywhere the 
revenge of the cruel king was most complete- The barons, 
in despair, offered the crown to Louis, the eldest son of the 
King of France, and John's nephew by marriage. This 
prince set sail from Calais with 680 ships, landed in the 
Isle of Thanet, and soon took possession of all the southern 
and eastern counties. Jealousy, however, at the favours 
bestowed upon the new-comers, was fast weakening the 
army of Louis, and many English barons withdrew their 
support. In the meantime «John was marching from the 
north to meet his rival, but as he was crossing the Wash 
the tide came up and carried away all his baggage, stores, 
and treasures. Disappointment and grief brought 
on a fever, of which he died at Newark Castle. ic)\a' 
Some writers say that a surfeit of peaches and 
new ale was the cause of his sickness; others, 
that he died of poison. 

John's death was a happy release for his country. His 
character was a mixture of everything bad. Nothing good 
can be said of him. He was mean, treacherous, debauched, 
tyrannical, cruel, and cowardly. Some of his actions can 
only be accounted for on the supposition that he was for 
the time mad. 

By his last wife Isabella he had two sons and three 
daughters' — Henry, who became king ; Richard; Joan, who 
married Alexander II. of Scotland; Eleanor, who married, 



100 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

first, William Earl of Pembroke, and afterwards Simon de 
Montfort, Earl of Leicester ; and Isabel, who married 
Frederick II., Emperor of Germany. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

Chimneys came into occasional use in this reign. The 
first. stone bridge at London was completed, 1209 a.d. 



JOHN. 



[99] 




m 
m 



II P3 

I s 



;=( 



J3 



[100] 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 







Orossbowman and Military Architecture of the 14ih Century. 



HENKY III. 101 



HENRY III. (Winchester). 
Sorn 1207 A.D. Began to Reign 1216 A.D. Died 1272 A.D. 



Regency of Pembroke. 

Hubert de Burgh. 

Disputes witli France, Scotland, 

and Wales. 
War with the Barons. 



First House of Commons. 

Battle of Evesham, 

Death and Character of the 

King. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



Regency of Pembroke and Hubert de Burgh. 

The royal family was at Gloucester when John died. His 
eldest son, Henry, a boy nine years old, was immediately 
crowned in that city, and the Earl of Pembroke was made 
Protector of the kingdom. The first step of the regent 
was undertaken to win over to the young king's side the 
English barons who supported Louis. For this purpose he 
assembled a great council at Bristol, and confirmed the 
Great Charter. 

Louis held possession of London and the southern 
counties, and was by no means willing to give up his 
chance of the crown, but his partiality to his own country- 
men, the death of John, and the wise conduct of the Earl 
of Pembroke, caused many of his English supporters to 
rally round young Henry. Pembroke attacked the forces 
of the French prince at Lincoln, and completely 
routed them. This battle is known as the Fair 1217 
of Lincoln, on account of the great spoil that a.d. 
fell to the victors. Louis retreated to London, 
and was there shut in by the English forces, while the 
6 



102 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

ships of tlie Cinque Ports, under Hubert, de Burgh, defeated 
a Fren oil fleet, off Dover, carrying reinforcements to the 
capital. The victory was due to a trick of De Burgh, 
who, having the wind in his favour; threw quicklime into 
the air, which, wafted into the eyes of the French, made 
them entirely helpless. Louis, after this defeat, came to 
terms with the regent, and returned to France. (Sept. 

1217 A.D.) 

In the third year of his regency. Earl Pembroke died. 
The custody of the young king was then given into the 
hands of Peter de Eoches, the Poitevin Bishop of 
Winchester, and Hubert de Burgh was appointed Protector 
of the kingdom. Between these two men quarrels were 
frequent, and, in consequence, many difficulties arose in 
the government of the country. When the king reached 
the age of seventeen years, the guardianship of De Eoches 
ceased, and De Burgh became Henry's friend and chief 
adviser. The bishop, vexed at his loss of influence and 
power, went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. De Burgh 
held the office of protector for eight years, during which 
time he conducted the government with vigour and 
decision. Henry was declared of age in 1227 a.d., and 
then Hubert devoted himself to his office of justiciary. 
Three years afterwards, the king .made an unsuccessful 
expedition against France, and threw the blame upon his 
friend De Burgh. Just then Peter de Eoches returned 
to England, and was received with open arms by Henry. 
Ruin stared the justiciary in the face. Unpopular for his 
vigorous protectorate, blamed for the failure of the expe- 
dition to France, and hated by De Eoches, he saw that 
disgrace awaited him. He was required to give an ac- 
count of the moneys received during his time of office ; 
and was accused of serious offences against his sovereign. 
Believing that his death was intended, he sought refuge, first 
in the sanctuary of Merton, and afterwards in the parish 
church of Brentwood, whence he was forcibly taken by the 
king's order. Transferred from prison to prison, he at 
length escaped to Wales; but in 1234 a.d. he received 



HENEY III. 103 

Henry's pardon, and spent the remainder of his life in 
retirement. 



Disputes with France, Wales, and Scotland. 

When Louis made peace with Earl Pembroke in London, 
he promised to use his influence with his father for the 
restoration of the French provinces which John had lost. 
No restoration, however, took place. But when Louis 
became king of France, in 1223, he republished the sen- 
tence which his father had pronounced against John, and 
took possession of a part of the provinces of Poitou and 
Guienne, which still belonged to the English crown. In 
consequence of this conduct, Henry received a grant of 
money from a great council of the barons, on 
condition of again confirming Magna Charta, and 1225 
an expedition was sent out to Guienne. The a.d. 
attempt to recover the whole province failed. In ^ 
1230, Henry took an army to St. Malo, but instead of 
vigorously carrying on the war, he spent the time in use- 
less display, and was at last glad to make a truce. This 
was the war for which Hubert de Burgh was blamed. 

Twelve years afterwards, the war with France was 
renewed, through the persuasion of Henry's mother, who 
had married her old lover, the Count de la Marche. The 
latter, having quarrelled with the French king, promised to 
help Henry to recover Poitou. At the head of an English 
force, the king landed near the mouth of the Garonne, but 
Louis met him with greater numbers at TaiUe- 
bourg', and put him to flight. Another defeat soon 1242 
afler at Saintonge forced Henry to agree to a a.d. 
truce. Peace was at last made in 1259, by which 
England gave up all claim to Normandy, Anjou, Maine, 
and Poitou, and received, in return, Limousin, Perigord, 
and Querci. 

With Wales there were quarrels throughout the reign. 
The Welsh indulged in their usual attacks upon the border 



104 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

counties, and the English in retaliation sent forces to ravage 
the principality. The mountain fastnesses defied all idea 
of conquest, but the march country was one wild scene of 
desolation. 

With Scotland there were several disputes about the 
three northern English counties and the homage of the 
Scottish king, but throughout this long reign no war arose 
between the two countries. Their ties of friendship were 
strengthened by a double marriage. Alexander II. married 
Joan, Henry's sister, and Alexander III. married Margaret, 
Henry's daughter. 



War with the Barons. First House of Commons. 

Henry, though he had several times confirmed Magna 
Charta, regarded that document as an encroachment upon 
the rights of a king. He broke its provisions on several 
occasiens, and looked upon the English barons with sus- 
picion, as men desirous of lessening the kingly power. 
Under the influence of this feeling, he bestowed his favours 
upon the numerous foreigners who flocked to England from 
Poitou on the return of Peter de Eoches to power. His 
marriage with Eleanor of Provence, in 1236, brought an- 
other shoal of foreigners into the country from his wife's 
native land, and these, like the Poitevins, were treated with 
marked favour. They became his confidants and advisers ; 
they enjoyed the highest honours at the court ; they married 
the. richest heiresses in the kingdom, and ladies were even 
brought from Provence to marry the rich wards of the 
king. Under their advice, the Great Charter was often 
broken. It is reported that they used to say, when the 
law was appealed to in opposition to their wrongdoing, 
' What do the English laws signify to us ? We mind them 
not.' 

Henry further increased the discontent of the nation by 
accepting the crown of Sicily for his second son, Edmund, 
as he thereby incurred a very heavy debt, which he expected 




p^ 



pq 



HENEY III. 107 

the barons to pay, 1254. The English nobles, remembering 
the example of their fathers in the reign of John, were 
determined to put an end to the king's bad government 
and foreign favouritism, and, under the leadership of Simon 
de Montfort, who had married Henry's sister Eleanor, they 
attended a council at Westminster in full armour, and de- 
manded the redress of national grievances. In another 
council, held soon after at Oxford, which was called the 
Mad Parliament, on account of the confasion 
that followed, twenty-four barons were appointed 1258 
to enquire into the grievances of the nation, and a.d. 
suggest changes necessary for the good of the 
country. On the recommendation of this committee, the 
following regulations, known as The Provisions of Oxford 
were approved : — 1. That four knights should be chosen 
by the freeholders of each county to lay before Parliament 
all their grievances. 2. That sheriffs of counties should 
be chosen annually by the freeholders. 3. That Parliament 
should meet three times a year. 4. That all public ac- 
counts should be given annually. 5. That no heirs should 
be committed to the wardship of foreigners, and that no 
castles should be entrusted to their custody. 

The barons, however, not content with these important 
changes, selected twelve of their number to act as a stand- 
ing Council, in order to ensure good government ; but these, 
instead of consulting the interests of the country, usurped 
the royal power, and gave their chief care to the ag- 
grandisement of their own families. Quarrels in conse- 
quence arose between them and the king, and civil war 
again threatened to arise. Louis IX. of France, called 
St. Louis, was asked to decide the causes of difference. 
As his award was in favour of Henry, the barons refused 
to abide by it, and both sides then prepared for war. A 
pitched battle was fought at Lewes, in Sussex, in 
which the barons were victorious, and the king - Z, - ' 
and his brother Richard were taken prisoners. 

•m AD 

A truce, called the Mise of Lewes, from an old 

French word of that meaning, was then made, by which it 



108 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

was agreed that the matters in dispute should be settled by 
arbitration ; that all prisoners should be set at liberty ; and 
that Prince Edward, the king's eldest son, and his cousin, 
should be hostages for the king's peaceable conduct. 
Contrary to the terms of the Mise, Henry was kept a 
prisoner, and Simon de Montfort, as leader of the barons, 
assumed the royal power, and was, in all but name, a 
king. 

On the 20th of January in the following year, De Mont- 
fort summoned a Parliament at London, in the king's name, 
which will be ever famous in our history as the 
beginning of the House of Commons. In addition 
to the great barons and prelates, he summoned 
two knights from each shire, and two deputies from each 
city and borough. They all sat in the same Chamber, and 
continued to do so until the reign of Edward III., when 
the representatives of the people assembled separately, and 
thus took the name of the House of Commons, while the 
barons formed the House of Lords. 

Though De Montfort won favour from the common 
people by summoning their representatives to Parliament, 
many of the barons were offended at the change. His ambi- 
tion and arrogance, besides, drove many from his side, and 
jealousy arose amongst those that remained. In the mean- 
while, the king's party continually increased in numbers ; 
and when Prince Edward escaped from his guards, he found 
a strong force of royalists ready to maintain his cause. 
Placing himself at their head, he met the army of the 
-g^" ' Earl of Leicester at Evesham, in Worcestershire. 
The bar.ons placed the king in the front ranks, in 
order that he might be slain by his own friends, 
but as the latter were rushing on to the attack, the king cried 
out, * I am Henry of Winchester, your king ! ' and thus 
saved his life. The rebel barons were put to flight ; De 
Montfort and his eldest son were slain, and the civil war 
was brought to an end. 



HENEY III. 109 



Death and Character of the King. 

After the battle of Evesham, the crown sa,t firmly on 
Henry's head. Prince Edward, taking advantage of the 
peaceable state of the kingdom, set out on a crusade to the 
Holy Land, in company with his wife Eleanor. There 
he was stabbed with a poisoned dagger, and owed his 
life to the affection of his wife, who sucked the poison from 
the wound. During his absence, his father died 
at Bury St. Edmund's, in the fifty-seventh year of - J„^ ' 
a reign which, excepting that of George III., is 
the longest in our history. 

Henry was a man of middle size. One of his eyebrows 
foil over the eyelid so as to conceal part of the eye. In 
character he was gentle and religious, but his want of 
energy and talent unfitted him to rule in those turbulent 
times. 

His children were : — Edward, who became king ; 
Edmund Earl of Lancaster; Margaret, married Alex- 
ander III. of Scotland ; and Beatrice, married John Duke 
of Brittany. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

Many improvements in domestic life were made in this 
reign. License was given to the people of Newcastle to 
dig coal, which is the first mention of this mineral in Eng- 
land. The linen manufacture was introduced by the Flem- 
ings ; candles were used instead of wooden torches ; tiles 
took the place of thatch in roofing houses ; and leaden water- 
pipes came into use. The first gold coin was struck in this 
reign. Roger Bacon, a monk, made many useful discoveries 
in science. Magnify ing-glasses, magic-lanterns, the air- 
pump, and gunpowder were invented by him. Another 
important mark of improvement was the aboHtion of trial 
by ordeal. The Mendicants, or Begging Friars, found 
their way to England in 1221, and settled first at Oxford. 
They professed poverty and maintained themselves by 



110 



HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 



begging from door to door — hence their name. They were 
preachers independent of episcopal controL There were 
many orders of these mendicants : the Bominicans, who 
came first, called also Blachfriars, from the colour of their 
dress ; the Franciscans, called Greyfriars, from the colour 
of their habit ; the Carmelites, or Whitefriars ; and the 
Augustines. 




Hpyal Oaxriage ; illustiatiTeof the trayellSng of the period- 



EDWARD I. Ill 



EDWAED I. (Longshanks), 
Born 1239 A.D. Began to Eeign 1272 A.L. Died 1307 A.D. 



Accession. 
Conquest of Wales. 
Affairs of Scotland. 



War with France. 

Death and Character of the Kin^. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 



Accession. Conquest of Wales. 

Edward I., the eldest son of Henry III., was in the Holy 
Land at the time of his father's death, but the Council at 
once announced his accession to the throne, and the chief 
nobility swore allegiance to him in his absence. In Sicily, 
on his way back, he received the news from home, but 
affairs in France prevented his landing in England till 
1274, in which year he was crowned, with his queen, at 
Westminster, in the presence of Alexander III. of Scotland 
and the Parliament. 

Edward first gave his attention to the conquest of Yv^ales. 
The Welsh, protected by their mountains and forests, had 
hitherto defied every attempt of the kings of England to 
effect their conquest. The history of the country from the 
tenth century is one long roll of strife and bloodshed. 
When not engaged in war with the Anglo-Normans, 
quarrels were frequent among themselves, and the work of 
blood went on at home. At this time Clewellyn reigned 
in Wales. His refusal to do homage, on the summons of 
Edward, brought an English army against him. Edward 
crossed the Dee, took the castles of Flint and Rhuddlan, 
and shut up Llewellyn among the Snowdon mountains. 
The latter then sent in his submission, and acknowledged 
himself as a vassal of the English king. (1277 a.d.) But the 
Welsh, after so long maintaining their independence, would 
not willingly submit to English rule. In 1282 they flew 
to arms, made a sudden attack upon the. fortresses of Flint 



112 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

and Rhuddlan, and ravaged the marches far and wide. 
Edward called together all his vassals, and advanced into 
Wales with a large army, Avhile his fleet was sent round fo 
Anglesea. Llewellyn, in the meantime, while engaged in 
disputing the passage of an English force across the "Wye 

in Eadnorshire, was suddenly attacked and slain, 
1282 and 2,000 of his men put to the sword. His 
A.D. head was cut off and sent to the king, who 

ordered it to be crowned with willow and placed 
on the Tower of London. Llewellyn's brother David con- 
tinued the struggle for some months, but, pursued from 
mountain to mountain, he at last fell into the hands of his 
enemies. Edward sent him in chains to Shrewsbury, 
v/here he was tried for high treason and sentenced to be 
hanged, drawn, and quartered. The conquest of Wales was 
now complete. English laws, sheriffs, and courts of justice 
were established in the principality ; the district was 
divided into counties; and strong castles were built to 
ensure the submission of the people. To please the Welsh, 
Edward's infant son, who had been born at Caernarvon, w^as 
made' Prince of Wales — a title which has ever since been 
given to the eldest son of the English sovereigns. 

Affairs of Scotland. 

Alexander HI., King of Scotland, who had married 
Edward's sister, died in 1286 a.d., without leaving any 
issue, except Margaret, the wife of Eric King of Norway. 
Through Alexander's care, the States of Scotland agreed to 
receive as their queen, Margaret, the daughter of Eric, then 
a child of three years old. This princess, known in history 
as The Maid of Norway, died at the Orkneys on her pas- 
sao;e to Scotland, and thus left the succession to the throne 
a matter of dispute and confusion. Out of thirteen candi- 
dates for the crown, John Baliol and Robert Bruce were 
considered to have the best claim. They were both 
descended from David Earl of Huntingdon, the brother of 
William the Lion. Baliol was the grandson of Margaret, 
the eldest daughter of David, and Bruce was the son of 



EDWARD I. 113 

Isabel, the second daughter. The Parliament of Scotland, 
in fear of civil war, referred the dispute to Edward. The 
English king marched to the north Avith a large army, and 
summoned the Scottish Parliament and the several claimants 
for the throne to appear before him at the castle of Norham. 
Having thus got the heads of the Scottish nation in his 
power, he demanded of them the acknowledgment of his 
right to settle the dispute as supreme lord of Scotland, and 
not as a chosen arbitrator. He based this claim on the fact 
that William the Lion had sworn vassalage to Henry H., 
and that Richard I. had no right to sell it. The Scots, 
thus taken by surprise, were unable to make any 
resistance. Edward decided in favour of Baliol, 1292 
who, on doing homage, was placed in possession a.d. 
of the throne. 

Baliol soon felt the itksomeness of his condition as a 
vassal of the English king. His subjects, when they 
thought themselves aggrieved, carried their complaints to 
Edward, and he was summoned repeatedly to appear before 
the bar of the English Parliament. These indignities were 
evidently intended to rouse Baliol to rebellion, in order 
that Edward might have an opportunity of taking possession 
of Scotland. The quarrel between England and France 
led Baliol, in 1296 a.d., to throw off his yoke of vassalage. 
Edward at once marched northwards, took 
Berwick by storm, defeated the Scots near Dun- 1296 
bar, and advanced to Elgin without further oppo- a.d. 
sition. Baliol was dethroned, and, after two years' 
confinement in the Tower of London, was allowed to retire 
to Normandy. The government of Scotland was left in the 
hands of the Earl of Surrey. The regalia and the great 
stone at Scone Castle, upon which the Scottish kings had 
been crowned from the earliest times, were brought to 
London. This stone was regarded Avith great veneration 
by the Scots, and popular legend said it was the one upon 
which Jacob laid his head at Bethel. It is noAV to be seen 
in the chair in which the kings of England are still crowned 
in Westminster Abbey. 

The Scots, however, were not disposed to submit to 



114 HISTOKY OF ENaLAND. 

English rule. From 1297 a.d. to 1304 a.d., a struggle, 
known as the ' Scottish War of Independence,' was car- 
ried on Tinder Sir William Wallace. Earl Surrey 
1297 was defeated with great slaughter near Stirling', 
A.D. and, after strengthening the English garrisons, he 
was forced to retire across the borders. Edward, 
who was then in Flanders, hurried home, and, collecting all 
his forces, overthrew the Scots at Falkirk, and inflicted 
upon them a loss of 30,000 men. Wallace withdrew to 
the woods, and, by sudden attacks, continued to harass the 
English forces. Treachery at last placed him in the power 
of Edward, who ordered him to be taken in chains to 
London, and there executed as a traitor. (1305 a.d.) 

After the capture of Wallace the conquest of Scotland 
was thought complete, but in 1306 a.d. the Scottish 
nobility called upon Eobert Bruce, the grandson of 
Baliol's rival, to head them in another attempt at inde- 
pendence. The news of the crowning of this young 
nobleman roused the spirit of Edward, and he marched to 
the north, burning with revenge, and bent upon punishing 
July 7, the whole nation. Illness, however, stopped his 
1307 march, and his death at Burgh-on-Sands, near 
a.d. Carlisle, put an end to his vows of vengeance. 

War witli France. 

In the year following the appointment of Baliol to the 
throne of Scotland, a quarrel between some English and 
Norman sailors near Bayonne, in Normandy, led to a war 
with France. In this quarrel a Norman sailor was acci- 
dentally killed. His countrymen, in revenge, seized some 
of the crew of an English ship, and hung them at the 
mast-head with several dogs. The sailors of the Cinque 
Ports fitted out a fleet of eighty ships, and sent a challenge . 
to the French to fight out their quarrel in the open sea. 
Two hundred sail answered the challenge, but not one 
returned to tell the tale of their defeat. (1293 a.d.) 
This loss so angered Philip of France that he summoned 
Edward, as Duke of Aquitaine, to appear before him. 



EDWARD I. 115 

Edmund, tlie king's brother, was sent over to settle the 
matter, and he foolishly surrendered to Philip the duchy 
of Guienne, the only English possession in France, on the 
understanding that it would, be restored at the end of 
forty days. But when the time was expired, Philip 
refused to restore the duchy and declared it forfeited, 
because the Duke of Aquitaine had not appeared in 
answer to his summons. Edward immediately prepared 
for war. To obtain funds for this purpose, he demanded 
from the clergy and laity more money than he had a right 
to claim, and he levied heavy duties upon wool without 
the consent of Parliament. An English army was sent 
into Guienne, and Edward himself was preparing to follow, 
when he heard that Baliol had made a secret treaty with 
the King of France, and had renounced his allegiance. 
After the settlement of Scottish affairs, Edward embarked 
with an army for Flanders, while another force was sent 
into Guienne. (1297 a.d.) On this occasion some of the 
leading English barons refused to accompany him, because 
ne had exacted money contrary to the law,- and they com- 
pelled him to confirm the Great Charter, and add to it a 
new clause to secure the nation for the future from taxation 
without the consent of Parliament. 

Force of arms failed to recover Guienne, and the news 
of the success of "Wallace in Scotland made Edward glad 
to bring the war to an end. Through the mediation of 
Pope Boniface, peace was concluded with France in 
1298 A.D. The peace was strengthened by a double 
marriage. Edward, then a widower, married Margaret, 
Philip's sister, and it was arranged that the Prince of Wales 
should marry Isabella, the daughter of that king. Guienne 
was restored to the English in 1303 a.d. 

Death and Character of the King, 

Edward, as we have seen, died at Burgh-on-Sands, in the 
sixty-ninth year of his age and the thirty-fifth July 7, 
of his reign, charging his eldest son to carry his 1307 
body before the army into Scotland, and not to a.d. 
bury it until the colnquest of that country was complete- 



116 HISTOEr OF ENGLAND. 

In appearance, Edward was tall and commanding, and 
from the great length of his legs he had the name of Long 
Shanks. His character was open, manly, and royal. 
Prudence, foresight, vigilance, energy, and industry, made 
him a wise statesman and a successful soldier; but his 
severity sometimes reached the point of cruelty. His reign 
is distinguished for the improvement of our laws, and, on 
this account, he has been called the English Justinian. 
His general character has also won for him the title of the 
Greatest of the Plantagenets. 

He was twice married : (1) to Eleanor of Castile, and 
(2) to Margaret of France. He left three sons and five 
daughters. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

In 1279 A.D., an important law, called the Statute of 
Mortmain, was passed, by which lands were forbidden to 
be made over to religious bodies without the king's per- 
mission. The statute was so called because land given to 
a corporation yielded no fines or profits to the king, and 
was considered to be in a dead holding {in mortua manu). 

In this reign the Convocation, or clerical parliament, 
consisting of an Upper and Lower House, took its rise. 

The Jews, under Edward, suffered great cruelty and 
oppression. In 1290 a.d., they were banished from the 
kingdom ; and did not return till the time of the Common- 
wealth. Their place as money-lenders was supplied by 
some Italian merchants, called Lombards, who settled in 
that part of London now named Lombard Street, and 
whose arms were the three balls now seen over pawn- 
brokers' shops. 

Windmills, spectacles, and looking-glasses, were intro- 
duced, and paper brought from the East. Striking clocks 
were invented by an English abbot, but there were only 
two of them in the kingdom during this reign; — one at West- 
minster, and the other at Canterbury. A trade in coal 
arose between London and Newcastle, but the use of the 
mineral was forbidden in the following year, on account of 
the smoke nuisance. 



EDWAKD II. 117 



EDWARD II. (Caernarvon). 
Born 1284 A.D. Began to Eeign 1307 A.D. Died 1327 A.D. 



Influence of G-aveston. 
First Eevolt of the Barons. 
War witli Scotland. 
The Spencers. 



Second Eevolt of the Barons. 
Deposition, Murder, and Cha- 
racter of Edward. 
Miscellaneous Pacts. 



Influence of Gaveston. Eevolt of the Barons. 

Edward II., named Caernarvon, from the place of his birth, 
was twenty- three years old at his father's death. The 
Scottish war was abandoned, and the old king's body 
buried at Westminster, contrary to his dying wishes. The 
young king soon showed his unfitness to occupy the throne. 
Unworthy favourites influenced his conduct, and eventually 
worked his ruin. The first of these was Piers Gaveston, 
a Gascon knight, who had been his companion in boy- 
hood. The late king had banished him, on account 
of the worthlessness of his character, but the first thing 
young Edward did, after his accession, was to send for his 
old friend. The highest honours were at once con- 
ferred Tipon him. He was made Earl of Cornwall, and 
married the king's niece. When Edward went to France 
to marry Isabella, his favourite was appointed regent of the 
kingdom. The barons, already angered by the favours 
and honours given to this young Frenchman, were insulted 
by receiving nicknames. Eoused by his insolence and 
haughtiness, they insisted upon his banishment, and he was 
sent to Ireland as lord-lieutenant. After a while the weak 
king recalled him, but, untaught by the past, his conduct 
became more provoking than ever. The Parliament, in 
order to check the favourite's power and ensure better 
government, appointed a council of twenty-one peers to 
rule the royal household, and these were called Ordainers. 



118 HISTOEY OF ENGLAl^D. 

Their first step was to banish Gaveston, with the warning 
that if he returned he should be treated as a public enemy. 
After a few months the king again recalled him ; but the 
barons immediately took up arms, and, under the leadership 
of Thomas Earl of Lancaster, seized Gaveston at Scar- 
borough Castle, took him to "Warwick, and beheaded him 
on Blacklow Hill. (1312 a.d.) Edward was very angry at 
his favourite's death, but he was powerless to punish his 
nobles. 

War with Scotland. 

When Edward I. died, Bruce was at the head of the 
Scottish nation ; and while the new king was wasting his 
time with worthless favourites, and quarrelling with his 
barons, Bruce made himself master of Linlithgow, Rox- 
burgh, Edinburgh, and Perth ; and Stirling was the only 
fortress in possession of the English. To save this place, 
already closely besieged, Edward marched with an army of 
100,000 men into Scotland. Bruce, with a picked army 
of 30,000 men, had taken up a strong position at Baimock- 
blirn, about a mile from Stirling, which he further 
1^14.' strengthened by digging pits, and covering them 
with sods. As the English approached, the Scotch 
all knelt down, in reverence to a crucifix carried 
through their ranks. * See,' cried Edward, * they are 
kneeling ! they ask mercy.' ' They do, my liege,' answered 
OHe of his knights, * but it is from God, and not from us. 
Trust me, yon men will win the day, or die upon the 
field.' ' ' Be it so, then,' replied the king, and ordered the 
charge to be sounded. The English, rushing furiously to 
the attack, were thrown into confusion by the pits and the 
steady valour of the Scotch. Bruce, well protected by the 
nature of the ground, bided his time ; and when he saw 
signs of wavering in the English ranks, he. ordered his army 
to advance in one line. Just at that critical time some 
Highlanders made their appearance on a neighbouring 
hill, and the English, thinking them a fresh army, fled in 
confusion, with a loss of 30,000 men. This battle, so 
disastrous to the English, placed the northern counties for 



EDWAED II. 119 

a time at tlie mercy of the conquerors, and secured the 
indepeimence of Scotland. 

The success of the Scots • encouraged the Irish to strike 
d blow for independence. Edward, brother of the Scotch 
king, crossed over to Ireland, and was crowned king of 
Ulster at Carrickfergus. (1315 a.d.) For two years, as- 
sisted by his brother Kobert, he ruled in Ulster, ■« q-i q 
but his death, in the battle of Fagher, near . _ 
Dundalk, restored English supremacy. 



The Spencers. Second Eevolt of the Barons. 

After the battle of Bannockbum, the party of the Earl 
of Lancaster held the chief power in England, while 
Edward devoted himself to another favouHte in the person 
of Hugh de Spencer, a young man of English birth, high 
rank, and noble family. This favourite became as hateful 
to the barons as Gaveston, and he and his father were 
accused in Parliament of usurping the royal authority, and 
were banished. Edward, roused at this insult, took up 
arms to resist the encroachments of the Lancastrian party, 
recalled the Spencers after three months' exile, defeated 
the confederate barons at Boroughbridge, captured the 
Earl of Lancaster, and beheaded him in Ponteiract Castle. 
(1322 A.D.) 

This success made Edward supreme in the government, 
and the power of the Spencers became greater than ever. 
But danger threatened the king from an unforeseen 
quarter. Charles the Fair of France complained about the 
government of Guienne, and Isabella was sent to Paris to 
arrange matters with her brother. She persuaded her 
husband to resign the duchy of Guienne to their eldest son, 
then a boy of thirteen years old, and to send him over to 
France to do homage. But this was only part of a plot for 
lier husband's overthrow. On the arrival of the queen at 
Paris, she found there several barons of the Lancastrian party, 
and, amongst the number, Roger Mortimer, a young noble, 
powerful in the Welsh marches. Common hatred of the 
Spencers drew the queen and these exiled nobles together, 



120 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

and Mortimer succeeded in gaining such a place in the 
queen's affections that she willingly joined a conspRacy for 
her husband's ruin. 

Collecting a force of 2,000 men, she landed on the coast 

of Suffolk, and was immediately joined by the dis- 

1326 contented nobility. Edward, finding himself 

A.D. deserted, withdrew to "Wales, but the elder Spencer 

was captured in Bristol, and, though ninety years 

old, was hanged, and his body thrown to the dogs. His 

son, too, was captured, and after a mock trial at Hereford 

he was executed upon a gallows fifty feet high. 



Deposition, Murder, Character of the King. 

Edward now seemed utterly forsaken. Failing to rouse 
the Welsh in his favour, he set sail for Ireland, but contrary 
winds drove him back to Wales. There he was soon dis- 
covered by his enemies, and sent as a prisoner to Kenil- 
worth Castle. The queen then summoned a Parliament in 
her husband's name, which voted the deposition of the 
king, as one unfit to govern. (January 7, 1327 a.d.) A 
deputation, sent to Kenilworth, forced from him a deed of 
resignation in favour of his son. The unhappy monarch 
was taken from castle to castle — to Corfe, Bristol, and 
Berkeley, and subjected to the greatest indignities. As 
bad treatment failed to put him out of the way, the queen 
and Mortimer determined upon his murder. One night 
the inmates of Berkeley Castle were roused from sleep by 
fearful shrieks in the king's apartment, and in the morning 
his dead body was shown without any marks of violence 
upon it. Eeport said that red-hot iron had been 
iQO'y ' P^^^^^ ^^*^ ^^^ body through a horn. No one 
enquired into the matter, and the body was buried 
at Gloucester. Thus, nine months after his depo- 
sition, miserably perished Edward II., in the forty-fourth 
year of his age, and twenty-first of his reign. 

Edward resembled his father in person. In character, 
he was weak and passionate, and much of his time was 



EDWAED II. 



121 



spent in idle amusements, while the government of the 
country was left in the hands of favourites. 

His children were : Edward, who became king ; John ; 
and two daughters. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

The Knights Templars, or order of soldier-monks, 
founded in the early Crusades, were suppressed (1312 a.d.), 
and their property was eventually placed in the hands of 
the Order of St. John, or Knights Hospitallers. The great 
house of the Templars in London was given to the law 
students in the following reign. Bills of exchange came 
into use ; the first commercial treaty was made between 
England and Venice ; paper was manufactured from rags, 
an innovation which the Chinese claim to have made, 
B.C. 170. Earthenware was introduced, and carrots and 
cabbages began to be used at table. Dublin ITniversity 
was founded in this reign. 




Litter ;. iUnstrative of tlie traYelliug of tho period. (From V^qjs.1 MS. Brit. Mug,) 



122 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 



EDWAED III. (Windsor) 
Born 1312 A.D. Began to Eeign 1327 A.D. Died 1377 A.D. 



The King's Minority. 
Fall of Mortimer. 
War with Scotland. 
War with France. 
Battle of Crecy. 
Battle of Neville's Cross. 



Siege of Calais. 

Battle of Poitiers. 

Death of the Black Prince. 

Loss of the French Possessions. 

Death and Character of Edward. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 



The King's Minority. Fall of Mortimer. 

Edwahd III., as the eldest son of Edward IL, was declared 
king on his father's deposition, but, since he was only 
fourteen years old, Parliament appointed a Council of 
Regency, and nominated the Earl of Lancaster guardian and 
protector of the young king's person. The real power, 
however, rested in the hands of Isabella and Mortimer. 

The Scots, taking advantage of the disturbed state of 
Eno-land, invaded the northern counties. Edward accom- 
panied an army to repress them, and narrowly escaped 
capture by a daring troop of Scotch horse. The Scots 
withdrew across the border in safety, and afterwards made 
their own terms of peace. They demanded the release of 
all their prisoners, the withdrawal of all claim of superiority 
on the part of England, and the restoration of the regalia. 
This disgraceful peace was made by the advice of Morti- 
mer, and, in consequence, much ill-will was excited against 
him. Many of the nobility hated him for his arrogance 
and pride, and the king's uncle, the Earl of Kent, was 
executed for conspiring his overthrow. (1330 a.d*) The 
Earl of Lancaster, too, was thrown into prison on suspicion 
of abetting the plot, and many others were prosecuted. 
This success made Mortimer more powerful than ever ; he 
took the title of Earl of March, and lived in royal style. 



EDWARD III. 123 

When Edward readied his eighteenth year he determined 
to shake off the authority of Mortimer, and take the 
government into his own hands. He told his plans to 
several nobles, and Nottingham Castle was fixed upon as 
the place to seize Mortimer's person. As the gates were 
always strongly guarded, an entrance into the castle was 
obtained through an underground passage. The obnoxious 
nobleman was seized and accused of usurping the royal 
authority, and forthwith hanged at Tyburn. (1330 a.d.) 
Isabella spent the rest of her life at her manor of Eisings, 
in Norfolk, where the king paid her a formal visit once or 
twice a year. 

"War with Scotland. 
Edward, having thus obtained the government of 
affairs, first gave his attention to Scotland. The great 
Bruce was dead, and his son David II., a boy in his seventh 
year, then filled the throne. In the treaty that was made 
with Scotlaqd just before the death of Bruce, it was agreed 
that the English nobles should be restored to their estates 
in that country. This remained unfulfilled, and the dis- 
contented English encouraged Edward Baliol, son of John 
Baliol, to make an attempt upon the Scottish crown. 
With a force of 3,000 men, Edward Baliol won his way to 
the throne in less than a month, but, foolishly dismissing 
his English supporters too soon, he found himself in another 
month driven across the border. Having promised to 
acknowledge the feudal superiority of the English king, he 
readily obtained Edward's help. While the latter was 
attacking Berwick — the key of Scotland — the 
Scots received a severe defeat at Halidon Hill, 1333 
where their regent was slain. Baliol was then a.d. 
ackuowledged king, and all the south-eastern 
counties of Scotland were added to England. This cession 
of territory increased the dislike of the Scots to Baliol, and, 
in spite of English help, he was again driven out of the 
country to make way for David II. (1341 a.d.) Fortunately 
for the Scots, the attention of the English king was drawn 
to France, and thus their country was delivered from 
further interference. 



124 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 



War with France. Crecy. Neville's Cross. Calais. 

Poitiers. 

In 1328 A.D., Charles IV. of France died, without leaving 
any male issue. Edward claimed the throne of that country 
in right of his mother Isabella, the sister of the deceased king. 
But, according to Ihe Salic law, which was in force in 
France, females were shut out from the throne, and there- 
fore Isabella had no claim. Edward, however, said that 
his mother could transmit the right to him ; but if this 
argument had any force, Charles of Navarre had a better 
claim, as may be seen from the genealogical table at the 
foot of the page. 

The peers of France refused to acknowledge Edward's 

claim, and received Philip of Valois as their king. Edward 

submitted, and did homage to Philip for Guienne, which 

belonged to the English crown. But as Philip aided the 

cause of David II. of Scotland, Edward renewed 

1337 his claim to the French crown, took the title of 

A.D. King of France, made alliances on the Continent, 
and prepared for war. 

Hostilities were commenced from the side of Flanders 
in 1339 A.D., but with little success. In the fol- 

1340 lowing year, the English attacked a large 

A.D. French fleet oiF Sluys. The French lost 230 

ships out of 400, and 30,000 men, while the loss 

of the victors amounted to only 4,000. Edward then 



Philip III. 



I i 

Philip IV. Charles of Valois. 



PHILIP VI. 



LoTJis X. Philip V. Charles IV. Isabella. 

Ill I 

Jane. 4 daughters. 2 daughters. EDWARD III. 

Charles King 
of Navarre. 



EDWARD III. 125 

commenced another campaign on land with a large army 
of mercenaries, but it proved fruitless, and ended in a truce 
for two years. 

In the autumn of the year 1342 a.d., Edward renewed 
the war on the side of Brittany, which duchy was then in 
opposition to the King of France. The war, like the one 
before, was carried on without any advantage till 1346 a.d., 
when the English gained the first of the two great vic- 
tories which has shed a lustre on this reign. In that year, 
Edward sailed from Southampton with an army of 30,000 
men, and landed at Cape La Hogue, in Normandy. Meet- 
ing with no opposition, he advanced almost to the gates of 
Paris, laid waste Normandy, and then directed his march to- 
wards Flanders, pursued by the French. Crossing the river 
Somme, near Abbeville, in the face of a body of French 
cavalry, he took up a position near the village of Crecy, and 
there awaited the enemy. He divided his army of 30,000 
men into three lines : the first he gave to the Prince of Wales, 
then only sixteen years old, and the third he commanded 
himself. The French came up with a large army of 
120,000 men, and, though tired with a hurried march, 
pushed on to the attack about four o'clock in the afternoon. 
In their van were 15,000 Genoese crossbowmen, specially 
brought from Italy to contend with the English archers. 
Just before the battle a tremendous storm broke in thunder, 
and rain, and hail, on the field, and flocks of crows and 
ravens hovered with hoarse cries over the French ranks. 
When at last the sky had cleared, and the Genoese pre- 
pared their crossbows to shoot, the strings had been so wet 
by the rain that they could not draw them. The English 
archers, on the other hand, had kept their bows in cases 
during the storm, and so had their strings dry. As soon 
as the Genoese came within range, the archers let fly their 
arrows so thick and fast ' that it seemed as if it snowed.' 
Unable to stand such a storm, they turned and fled in the 
wildest confusion. The French king, enraged by the flight 
of his bowmen, shouted to his men-at-arms, * Kill me 
those scoundrels ! ' His orders were obeyed, and the 
wretched Italians were cut down by their own friends. The 
7 



126 



HISTORY OF ENaLAND. 



young Prince of Wales, leading on his men to the charge, 
was sorely pressed by the enemy, and sent to his father for 




Archer, with Sheaf of Arrows. 

help. The king, who was watching the battle from a 
neighbouring windmill, answered, ' Not so : let the boy 
win his spurs, and let the day be his.' This answer gave 
fresh courage to the English troops. They rushed again 
to the attack, drove the French in headlong flight, and 
chased them without mercy, till darkness put an end to 
the pursuit. Edward received his son with open arms on 
his return to camp, exclaiming, * My brave son I persevere 
in your honourable course ; you are my son ; for valiantly 
have you acquitted yourself to-day, and worthy are you of 
a crown.' From this time the young prince became a 
terror to the French, by whom he was called the Black 



EDWAED III. 



127 



Prince, from the colour of the armour he wore on that 
day. 




Crossbowman, with Shield. 

The battle of Crecy was most destructive to the French, 
who lost 11' princes, 1,200 knights, and more 
than 30,000 common soldiers. Among the slain ^QAa ' 
was John, the blind King of Bohemia, who in- 
sisted upon entering the battle, and caused the 
reins of his bridle to be tied to the horses of two of his 
knights. The crest of this king, which consisted of three 
ostrich feathers, with its motto, Ich Dien (I serve), was 
assumed by the Prince of Wales. 

Edward, after the battle, marched to Calais, which he 
besieged by land and sea. But in the meanwhile, David 
Bruce, taking advantage of Edward's absence, invaded 
England as an ally of France. He was met by 
Philippa, the queen, at Neville's Cross, near ?n]ii^' 
Durham, where his army was utterly defeated, 
and himself taken prisoner. He was liberated in 
1357 for a ransom of 100,000 marks. 



128 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

The Siege of Calais continued for eleven months. 
Tliongh the townsmen defended their city with the greatest 
bravery, famine at last compelled them to open the gates. 
(1347 A.D.) Edward, very angry with the citizens for their 
stubborn resistance, ordered six of their chief men to bring 
him the keys of the town with feet bare and ropes round 
their necks. One of the richest men of the town, Eustace 
de St. Pierre, volunteered to undergo this humiliation, and 
live others quickly followed his example. Kneeling before 
the English king, they gave him the keys of Calais, beg- 
ging for mercy. But Edward ground his teeth in passion, 
and called for the headsman to do his work. His queen 
then fell on her knees and begged for their lives. Her 
entreaties succeeded, and they were set at liberty. The 
native population was expelled, and a colony of English 
subjects took possession of the town, which became an 
important mart for the sale of Flemish and English goods. 
It continued under English rule for more than two cen- 
turies. 

After the capture of Calais, a truce was made between 
France and England, which was further prolonged by a 
plague, called the Black Beath. This dreadful pestilence 
first appeared in the north of Asia, and, spreading over the 
whole of Europe, destroyed about one-third of the popu- 
lation in every state through which it passed. In London 
50,000 people are said to have perished. 

In 1355 A.D., the truce ceased, and the French war was 
renewed as fiercely as ever. The state of France at that 
time was favourable to the success of the English arms. 
Philip of Valois was dead, and John, his son, now occu- 
pied the throne ; but Charles of Navarre excited factions 
in the country, which almost made it powerless to resist 
invasion. Edward advanced from Calais, while the Black 
Prince ravaged the south of France, and both returned to 
their respective quarters laden with much spoil. In the 
following year, the Black Prince, encouraged by his former 
success, entered into the heart of France with a small force 
of 12,000 men, of whom scarcely one-third were English. 
On his return to Guienne, he was overtaken, near Poitiers, 



EDWARD III. 129 

by King John with an army of 60,000 men. Though 
greatly outnumbered, the hero of Crecy refused to 
surrender, and with great skill took up a position where he 
could only be approached through a narrow lane. A body 
of English archers lined the hedges, and when the French 
advanced up the narrow way, they were so hotly plied 
with aiTows that their dead soon choked up the road, and 
the rest were driven back upon their own men. „ 
The victory of the English was complete ; John -i o'co ' 
was taken a prisoner, and brought to London. 
The Battle of Poitiers thus stands one of the 
most memorable on record. 

King John was lodged in the palace of the Savoy, Lon- 
don, and was treated with the greatest attention and respect. 
He signed terms of peace with Edward, by which he 
promised to give back all the possessions in France which 
were held by Henry H., without exacting any homage for 
the same ; but the French nobility refused to agree to such 
a disgraceful peace. Edward, in consequence, again in- 
vaded France, and ravaged the country up to the walls of 
Paris. This led to fresh negotiations, and, at length, a 
treaty of peace was made at Bretigni, hence called the 
Treaty of Bretigni, or the Great Peace, in which 
Edward renounced all claim to the French crown and the 
provinces of Normandy, Maine, Touraine, and Anjou, and 
received in return, without the claim of homage, the 
provinces of Poitou, Guienne, with districts in that 
quarter, and the town of Calais, and the promise -^ „ 
of three million gold crowns (equal to 1,500,000Z. iqca' 
of our money), as a ransom for the king. Three 
years afterwards. King John, failing to raise 
the ransom, returned to England, and was again placed 
in the palace of the Savoy, where he soon sickened and 
died. 

Death of the Black Prince. Loss of the French 
Provinces. Death of Edward, etc. 

The English provinces in France were placed under the 
rule of the Black Prince. In an evil hour, he marched 



130 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 

with an army into Castile to restore Pedro the Cruel. 
(1367 A.D.) Success as usual crowned his arms; but Pedro 
refused to pay the expenses of the expedition, and he 
was therefore compelled to tax his French subjects. The 
Gascons appealed to Charles of France against such taxa- 
tion, who, contrary to the treaty of Bretigni, summoned the 
prince to Paris. He answered that he would come, but it 
would be at the head of 60,000 men. War was thus re- 
newed with France. Failing health, however, compelled 
the prince to give up the command, and then the English 
cause grew weak. After his departure for England, the 
French went on from conquest to conquest, till, out of all the 

possessions in France, only Bordeaux, Bayonne, 
1376 and Calais remained to the English king. The 
A.D. Black Prince died, after a lingering illness, in the 

forty- sixth year of his age, universally regretted 
by the whole nation on account of his many virtues. 

Edward did not long survive his favourite son ; he died 

the following year, at Shene, on the Thames, near 

1377 ' -^^^^^0^^? ^ft^^ ^ reign of fifty years, and was 

. -. buried at "Westminster. He was a brave, wise, 

and popular king. His ambition and warlike 
spirit led him into unjust wars ; but under his rule England 
enjoyed greater tranquillity than for a long time before 
or after. The wars with France employed all restless 
spirits, and tended to unite the various races which com- 
posed the people of this country. The Norman, the Saxon, 
and the Welshman fought side by side at Crecy and 
Poitiers, and there learned to forget their old hatred. 
Edward always consulted his Parliament on all important 
questions ; and it grew, in consequence, in importance and 
power. 

By his queen, Philippa of Hainault, he had six sons 
and five daughters. The most distinguished of his sons 
were the Black Prince ; Lionel Duke of Clarence ; John 
of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster (born at Ghent) ; Edmund 
Duke of York ; and Thomas Duke of Gloucester. 



EDWARD III. 131 



Miscellaneous Facts. 



To put an end to the Pope's practice of appointing 
foreign clergymen and others to clerical posts in Eng- 
land, or, as it was called, making ' provisions ' to English 
livings, a law was passed, called the Statute of Provisors 
(1344), forbidding any such appointments ; and in the 
following year this law was further improved by for- 
bidding appeals from the king's courts to those of the 
Pope. Another important law made in this reign was the 
Statute of Treasons (1352), which limited the crime to 
three chief acts — (1) conspiring the king's death; (2) 
levying war against him ; (3) aiding the king's foreign 
enemies. 

Commerce greatly increased in this reign. Flemish 
weavers settled at Worsted, in Norfolk ; and one Thomas 
Blanket, of Bristol, established the manufacture since known 
by his name. Wool was the chief article of export. The 
use of the French language in the English law courts was 
abolished, 1362. Windsor Castle was rebuilt by Edward 
III., the architect being William of Wykeham, the founder 
of Winchester School. The men employed in this work 
were levied, like an army, in every county. The Order of the 
Garter was instituted, 1349. It is said that the order and 
its motto originated in an incident which took place at a 
ball. The Countess of Salisbury having dropped her 
garter, the king picked it up and gave it to her, but at the 
same time, observing some of the courtiers smiling, he said, 
' Honi soit qui mal y pense ' — ' Evil be to him who evil 
thinks.' The title of ' Duke ' was introduced by Edward. 
Rude cannon are said to have been used in the battle of 
Crecy. 

The members of the parliament called the Commons 
began to assemble in a separate Chamber, and adopted 
the practice of electiDg a Speaker. Geoffirey Chaucer, 
'the father of English poetry,' and John Wickliffe, the 
*■ Morning Star of the Eeformation,' flourished at this time. 



132 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



BICHABD II. (Bordeaux). 

Born 1367 A.D. Began to Reign 1377 A.D. 
Dethroned 1399 A.D. 



Eichard's Accession. 
Wat Tyler's Eebellion. 
Invasion of Scotland. 



Richard's Misgovernment. 
His Deposition and Character. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



Richard's Accession. Wat Tyler's Rebellion. 

Richard II., the only son of Edward the Black Prince, 
ascended the throne in his eleventh year. He was sur- 
named Bordeaux, from the place of his birth. His coro- 
nation took place with greater magnificence than usual, and 
the streets of London were gay with arches and banners. 
The government was vested in a Council of Regency, from 
which his uncles were excluded, but nevertheless their 
influence in public affairs was very great. 

The war with France still went on. To meet its expenses, 
a poll-tax of three groats was imposed upon every male and 
female in the country above the age of fifteen. This was 
evidently very unfair to the poor, for no difference was 
made between them and the rich, and the discontent in 
consequence was very widespread. The harsh way in which 
the tax was gathered turned the discontent of the people 
into rebellion. No doubt the condition of the poor at this 
time was very bad, and their grievances many, so that it 
needed but an opportunity to fan their smouldering discon- 
tent into violence. The first outbreak took place in Kent. 
A tax-gatherer visited the house of Walter, a tiler, com- 
monly called Wat Tyler, in Dartford, and offered a gross 
insult to his daughter. The father struck the fellow dead 
on the spot. The bystanders praised the deed, and flew 
to arms to take vengeance upon their oppressors and to 
fight for liberty. The flame of insurrection spread instantly 



EICHAED II. 133 

througli Kent and all the eastern counties as far as the 
Humber. Before the government had the least warning of 
the danger, the insurgents were on the way to London, 
under the leadership of Wat Tyler, Jack Straw, and others 
with feigned names. On Blackheath they assembled to 
the number of 100,000, and there their passions were 
further aroused by the address of one John Ball, a worth- 
less priest, who took for his text the lines — 

When Adam delved, and Eve span, 
Who was then the gentleman ? 

The rising was one of the poor against the rich ; the old 
cry of ' Down with the Norman ! ' gave place to ' Down 
with the rich ! ' and it was woe to the rich man who fell 
into the hands of the excited mob. They entered London, 
burned down the palace of the Savoy, broke open 
the prisons, cut off the heads of all the gentry on i qqi 
whom they could lay hands, and pillaged the 
houses of the rich. Eichard met a party of them 
at Mile End, and promised to grant their demands. These 
were : — 1. The abolition of slavery. 2. The reduction of 
the rent of land to fourpence an acre. 3. Liberty to buy 
and sell in fairs and market-towns. 4. A general pardon 
for past offences. The insurgents then withdrew to their 
homes. But Wat Tyler, at the head of 20,000 men, met 
the king next day at Smithfield, and behaved himself so 
insolently that Walworth, the Lord Mayor, struck him 
down with his sword, and the royal attendants despatched 
him. The rioters immediately prepared to avenge their 
leader's death, when the young king, with great presence 
of mind, rode up to them, exclaiming, ' What is the mean- 
ing of this disorder, my good people ? Are ye angry that 
ye have lost your leader ? I am your king : I will be 
your leader ! * This boldness succeeded, and the rioters 
departed to their homes with the same promises as those 
made at Mile End. But in less than three weeks all the 
charters and promises were revoked, and more than 1,500 
of the rioters were put to death. 



134 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



Invasion of Scotland. Misgovernment of England. 

Kichard's boldness at Smitlifield, when only sixteen 
years of age, had led to expectations of a successful and 
prosperous reign; but as he advanced to manhood his 
want of ability to rule became evident, and disappointed 
the hopes of his friends. The Scots, in alliance with 
France, having invaded England, Eichard led an 

1385 expedition into Scotland, and burnt Edinburgh 

A.D. and other cities. Though he had an army of 
60,000 men under his command, he attempted 
nothing more, but returned home in haste to his vain 
pleasures and the guidance of favourites. Border warfare, 
however, continued for some years. On one occasion the 
friends and retainers of Douglas the Scot and Percy of 
Northumberland met at Otterboume, and there fought a 
fierce battle, which has been made famous in the old 
ballad of Chevy Chase. (1388 a.d.) Young Percy, sur- 
named Hotspur, from his impetuous valour, was taken 
prisoner, and Douglas slain; and the victory remained 
undecided. 

Kichard's indolent disposition, and his love of favourites, 
caused great dissatisfaction. His uncle, Thomas Duke of 
Gloucester, took advantage of this to make himself head of 
the government, and, under his influence, the Parliament 
called ' Wonderful and Merciless ' put two of the king's 
favourites to death, 1388. The following year, Eichard 
took the government into his own hands, and removed 
from the Coimcil all who had opposed him. For some 
years affairs went on quietly, although there was much 
dissatisfaction with the king's love of vain show and 
pleasure. Eichard attempted to silence the murmurs of the 
nobility by harsh measures. His uncle, the Duke of Glou- 
cester, was suddenly arrested and sent to Calais, where he 
was mysteriously murdered ; other leading men were fined, 
imprisoned or executed; and Thomas Arundel, Archbishop 
of Canterbury, was banished. Only two of his chief oppo- 



EICHARD II. 135 

nents remained unpunished — his cousin Hereford, son of 
the Duke of Lancaster, and the Duke of Norfolk. One 
day, these two having discussed their chances of sharing 
the same fate as the others, Norfolk was publicly accused 
by Hereford of slandering the king. Norfolk denied the 
charge, and appealed to the wager of battle. When both 
were about to enter the list^ the king forbade the duel, 
and banished Hereford for ten years and Norfolk for life. 
Richard, having thus got rid of his dangerous opponents, 
ruled like an absolute king. His will was law, and his 
government unjust ; but no one ventured to say a word 
against any of his acts, though discontent was general and 
deeply-rooted. 

Richard's Fall and Character. 

When the Duke of Hereford was banished, the- king 
said that he should succeed to his father's possessions; 
but on the death of the Duke of Lancaster, in 1399, 
Richard broke his promise and seized the estates. Here- 
ford, now Duke of Lancaster, smarting under this injustice, 
landed at Ravenspur, in Yorkshire, with 60 persons, saying 
that he had come only to claim his rights. He was imme- 
diately joined by the Earls of Northumberland and West- 
moreland, and as he marched southward ncAv forces 
gathered round him daily, till on reaching London his 
folio Avers numbered 60,000. Richard was absent in 
Ireland, and entirely ignorant of what was going on. 
When the news reached him, he hurried across, to Milford 
Haven with a part of his army, but finding himself de- 
serted, he went in disguise to Conway Castle. There he 
was persuaded to surrender himself to the Earl of North- 
umberland, who conducted him with mock respect to 
London. A Parliament forthwith assembled, and de- 
posed him, on the ground of tyranny and bad government. 
The Duke of Lancaster then arose, and, crossing himself, 
said, * In the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, I, 
Henry of Lancaster, claim this realm of England, as 
descended by right line of blood from the good lord King 



136 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

Henry HI.' The claim was immediately admitted, and 

the two Houses of Parliament hailed him as 

^Tqqq^' Henry IV. of England. The law of succes- 

sion was thus broken, for the right to the throne 

by descent belonged to the descendants of Lionel 

Duke of Clarence, the third son of. Edward III. This 

usurpation afterwards bore bitter fruits in the long wars of 

the Roses. 

The deposed king was placed for safety in Pontefract 
Castle, but what became of him is not certainly known. 
Some say that he was there assassinated, or starved to 
death, early in the year 1400 ; while others say that he 
escaped to Scotland, where he lived in obscurity for many 
years. 

Eichard's character rendered him unfit to rule. To 
weakness of judgment was joined violence of temper, 
which in the last years of his government made him very 
tyrannical. He resembled Edward II. in disposition, 
general conduct, and unhappy fate. 

Though twice married — first, to Anne of Bohemia ; 
secondly, to Isabella, daughter of Charles VI. of France — 
he left no children. 



Miscellaneous Facts. 

A very important law was made in this reign to curb 
still further the papal power in England. It was passed in 
the year 1393, and is called the Statute of PrgBmunire. 
This Act outlawed any one, with loss of all property, who 
should introduce a foreign power into the land, or give 
obedience to any papal process which by right belonged to 
the king. 

In the latter part of the reign of Edward III., Jolm 
Wickliffe, a priest educated at Oxford, began to preach 
against the abuses of the Church. He translated the Bible 
into English, and referred to that book as the standard of 
religious truth. His numerous followers were called 
Wickliffites and Lollards, fi*om the word lollen or lulleiiy 
* to sing,' on account of their hymn-singing. He died of 



RICHARD II. 137 

palsy, in the year 1385, at Lutterworth Eectory, Leicester- 
shire. Geoffrey Chaucer, who flourished at this time, was 
a follower of Wickliffe. 

Westminster Hall was rebuilt by Richard. Anne of 
Bohemia is said to have introduced horned headdresses, 
the modern pin, and side-saddles. The great London 
companies of the Fishmongers, Leathersellers, and Mercers, 
were founded in this reign. Peers were first created by 
letters patent; and for the first time at the king's corona- 
tion, a knight threw down his glove as a challenge to any 
one to dispute the monarch's claim. 



138 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 



Social Condition of the People in the Time of 
THE PLANTAGENETS PEOPER. 

Food. Dress. Dwellings. Amusements. National 
Industry. Literature, etc. 

Food. — During this period, a sumptuous and extravagant 
style of living was introduced amongst the nobility. In 
addition to the two meals that were taken in the Norman 
period, the practice of having luncheon and a supper of 
cakes and wine came into use. This increase of luxury 
in living seems due to the chief nobility's custom of 
gathering round their tables large numbers of retainers, and 
endeavouring to outshine each other in hospitality and 
sumptuousness. At the marriage banquet of Eichard 
Earl of Cornwall, the son of King John, 30,000 dishes 
were served up ; and in the following century an abbot 
of St. Augustine prepared 3,000 dishes for his guests. 
Eichard 11. is said to have daily maintained 10,000 re- 
tainers at his table. Housekeeping became so extravagant 
that Edward II. and Edward III. attempted to check it by 
special laws, but little regard was paid to them. 

The lower classes of the people were content with the 
fruo-al fare of their forefathers, and were satisfied with 
quantity rather than quality. 

Press. — The style of dress of the upper classes continued 
much as it was before, till the reign of Edward II. The 
gentleman's loose tunic then gave way to a close-fitting 
garment, reaching down to the middle of the thigh, 
buttoned down the front, and fastened round the waist by 
a girdle. The material was of the finest stufif, sometimes of 
various colours, and richly embroidered. It had two 
sleeves, an inner one reaching to the wrist, and an outer 



SOCIAL LIFE UNDER PLANTAG-ENETS PHOPER. 139 

one ending above the elbow, from which hung streamers 
of white cloth, called tippets. The headdress consisted of 
a hood, attached to a cape, which was fastened round the 




Eoyal Feast ; illnstrative of the period. (From Eoyal MS. Brit. Mus.) 



neck. Long hose, and short laced boots tapering to a 
point, completed the costunle. The dress was remarkable 
for its variety of colours. One-half the tunic and hose and 
each shoe were usually of different colours, a variety which 
gave to the wearer a most fantastic appearance. 

Down to the times of Edward II., ladies wore dresses 
with long trailing skirts, but during that reign the fashion 
changed to the opposite extreme. The trains were cut off, 
and the skirts became so scant that, with this and a head- 
dress like that of the men, a lady at a distance could 
scarcely be distinguished from a gentleman. The hair, 
instead of hanging in tails as formerly, was coiled up be- 
hind, and enclosed in a netw^ork of gold, silver, or silk 
thread. Aprons, under the name of lapcloths, came into 
use ; and mourning habits of a black colour began to be 
worn in the reign of Edward III. Foppery increased very 



140 



HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 



much in the time of Eichard II. Men wore their hair 
long and carefully curled, and the long beard again came 
into fashion. 




Dais, with high Tabic and Tapestry ; illustrative of the period. 



.Dwellings. — Henry II. gave a check to the building of 
baronial castles, by enacting that no residence should be 
fortified without the king's license. As the country became 
more settled, there arose a desire for greater splendour and 
comfort, and an attempt was made to give to the baronial 
residence the character of palace as well as fortress. Manor 
houses were still embattled and surrounded by a moat. 
The banquet hall, with its arched windows and lofty roof, 
was the most remarkable feature of the dwellings of the 
nobility, but the smoke still continued to find its way out 
through the roof or the latticed windows. Chimneys and 
glass windows were as yet very rare. Town houses were 
characterised by high gables and small latticed windows. 
The castles of Alnwick, Conway, Warwick, Kenilworth, and 
Windsor, are specimens of the baronial residences of this 
period. 

Furniture continued as scanty as before ; tables still 
stood on trestles, and chairs were only used on State 
occasions. 

The houses of the poor remained unchanged — timber 
being the chief material in their structure. 



SOCIAL LIFE UNDER PLANTAG-ENETS PEOPER. 141 

During this period, Gothic Architecture took the place 
of the Norman style in ecclesiastical buildings. Pointed 
arches and profuse decorations are its distinguishing fea- 
tures. Its prevalence over Europe at this time is said to 
be due to the Society of Freemasons. Some of our finest 
cathedrals were buUt in this period. Up to the time of 
Edward I., the style of architecture was called the Lancet, 
or Early English Gothic, distinguished by the lancet- 
shape of its arched doorways and windows. It is also 
characterised by great simplicity in its composition. 
The finest examples of this style are the cathedrals of 
Salisbury, York, Westminster partly, Glasgow, and Aber- 
deen, and the ruined abbeys of Elgin and Holyrood. The 
reign of Edward II. brought in with it the Decorated 
English style, distinguished from the former by greater 
decoration and the tracery of its windows. Of this kind, 
the best specimens are Exeter Cathedral and the ruins of 
Croyland and Tintern. The great east and west windows 
were introduced into churches during this period, and such 
buildings were handsomely adorned with painted glass and 
decorated spires. 

Amusements. — The tournament still continued to hold 
the chief place amongst out-door amusements. The dis- 
play, however, both of expense and of taste, was much 
greater than in the preceding period. Ordeal combats or 
duels were closely connected with the tournament. In 
cases where a charge could not be readily proved, resort 
was had to the duel on the faith that Heaven would defend 
the right. These combats became very frequent in the 
reign of Eichard II. Hunting and hawking were other 
favourite sports of the nobility and gentry, in which ladies 
took a very prominent share. The clergy, too, were very 
fond of these sports, so much so that in the reign of 
Richard II. every clergyman who had not a benefice of the 
annual value of 1 01. was forbidden to keep a dog for hunt- 
ing. It was a gentleman's pride to possess fleet steeds, 
high-soaring hawks, good hounds, and bright armour ; and 
he seldom stirred abroad in times of peace without having 
a greyhound at his heels, or a falcon on his wrist. 



142 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

The indoor games of tlie upper classes continued the same 
as in the former period ; these were chess, draughts, tricks 
of jugglers, jesters, mummings, minstrel singing, and 
dancing. The jester was now found in every noble house- 
hold. It was his duty to keep up the spirit of his jaded 
lord, and amuse the guests in the banquet-hall by jests and 
grotesque figures. 

The common people had their mummings, quoits, foot 
and hand ball, and at Christmas the Feast of Fools, in 
which merriment ran wild and decency was forgotten ; but 
the popular sport of the time was archery. 

This was regulated and encouraged by law. Every per- 
son possessing an annual income of more than one hundred 
pence was obliged to furnish himself with a serviceable 
bow and arrows ; and all persons were required to practise 
archery, to the exclusion of all other games, on holidays 
during the hours not occupied by divine service. 

National Industry. — Commerce greatly increased 
diu-ing this period. Wool formed the great staple of the 
kingdom, and this article was chiefly exported to Flanders 
for purposes of manufacture. Edward III. invited weavers, 
dyers, and fullers from Flanders to settle in England, and 
to his wise policy we owe the establishment of the woollen 
manufacture in this country. The trade in wool was con- 
sidered so honourable a pursuit that even kings engaged in 
it. The conqueror at Crecy was called in derision by his 
French rival, the ' Eoyal wool-merchant.' Flemish mer- 
chants were found in all the chief towns of the kingdom, 
and in the south-eastern ports of Ireland. They formed 
guilds for the protection of trade ; and in London their 
hall or factory was called the Gildhall, now known as the 
GuildhaU. 

The discovery of the mariner's compass gave an impulse 
to navigation and commerce, but the ships of the period 
were small in size. One manned by thirty seamen was 
considered very large. The royal navy, in times of war, 
was chiefly composed of vessels belonging to private 
merchants. 

The average rent of land was Ad. per acre ; the price of 



SOCIAi; LIFE UNDER PLANTAGENETS PEOPER. 143 

wheat, 'is. Gd. per quarter; a fat ox cost 16s.] a sheep, 
Is. 2d.-^ a hog, 35. 4c?. ; ale, Id. per gallon ; a pair of shoes, 
4rd. ; and broad cloth, Is. id. per yard. 

In the reign of Edward III. a hay-maker received Id. 
per day ; a reaper of corn, 3d. ; a mason or carpenter, 4c?.; 
but to find the present value of these sums, we must mul- 
tiply them by twenty or twenty-four. 

A large portion of the trade of the country vf as transacted 
in fairs and markets. The shops of London tradesmen in 
the Cheap resembled sheds, and some of them were simply 
stalls in the street. The mercers dealt in toys and small 
wares, and their stock was as miscellaneous as that of a 
village shop in the present day. A grocer was called a 
pepperer, and dealt in drugs and spices, of which pepper 
formed the most costly article. Drapers were originally 
makers of cloth — ' to drape ' signified to make cloth. Tailors 
made women's garments, and dealers in articles of dress 
brought firom Milan were called milliners. The population 
at this time numbered about 2,000,000. The number of 
free labourers increased very much. Many slaves obtained 
their freedom by taking refuge in a walled town, and re- 
siding there for a year and a day. 

Language, Learning, and Literature. — The language 
at the beginning of this period has been termed Semi- 
Saxon ; and from Henry III. to Edward III. Old English, 
In the reign of the latter monarch, the reaction against the 
Norman-French tongue became evident, and the statute 
passed in 1362 a.d., directing all pleas in courts of justice 
to be carried on in English, gave new life to the language 
of the people. The writers of Edward's reign inaugurated 
the period of Middle English, which lasted till the death 
of Queen Mary (1558 a.d.). The changes indicated by the 
terms Semi-Saxon, &c., did not take place at any one defi- 
nite time, but gradually. The chief changes were — (1) the 
omission of many terminations or inflexions of nouns and 
verbs, and using in their place prepositions and auxi- 
liaries ; (2) the introduction of French and other foreign 
words. 

The clergy still continued to be the only learned men of 



144 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

the time, but their knowledge was very limited. The arts 
of war and the chase were all the nobles cared to know ; 
few of them could read, and fewer still could write. Even 
many of those occupying high stations in the State were 
unable to write their names, and considered it no shame to 
sign documents with the mark of a cross. Hence it hap- 
pened that the learned professions and most of the high 
offices in the State were filled by clergymen. 

The chief cause of the ignorance of the laity was the 
scarcity of books. Before the invention of printing, all 
works were written by hand on parchment, hence called 
manuscripts, and this kind of labour was long and 
laborious. Parchment was the only material then used for 
writing upon, and the expense of this added consider- 
ably to the difficulty of multiplying copies. Libraries 
were only found in monasteries, where there was a room 
set apart for copying, called a scriptorium, or writing- 
room. The monks engaged in this work were skilful pen- 
men and painters of letters. The headings and margins of 
their manuscripts were usually ornamented with tasteful 
designs, painted with various coloured inks and richly em- 
bellished with gold and silver ; such embellishments were 
called illuminations. Books, thus illuminated, were very 
costly ; 4:01., equal to 800Z. of present money, are said to 
have been given for a copy of the Bible. 

Throughout the greater part of this period, Latin was the 
language of all legal documents, but towards the close, 
French was frequently employed. All books of theology, 
philosophy, and science were written in Latin. With the 
exception of a few metrical chronicles and romances, for 
the most part translations from the French, no composition 
appeared in English, as distinct from the Anglo-Saxon, till 
the end of the reign of Edward I. It was not till the four- 
teenth century that our literature fairly started into exist- 
ence, when Chaucer appeared as the father of English 
poetry. In the two preceding centuries, the popular lite- 
rary characters were the minstrels, or troubadours, who, 
roving from castle to castle, sang to the harp in spirit- 
stirring lays the glories of war and the chase, and the 



SOCIAL LIFE UNDER PLANTAGENETS PROPER. 145 

praises of love and beauty. The chief writers of this 
period in Semi-Saxon, Old English, and Middle English, 
respectively, were the following : — 



SEMI-SAXON (1066-1216). 

LAYAMON, a Worcestershire priest: wrote a rhyming chro- 
nicle of Britain, said to be a translation of one of the Latin 
chronicles of Greofirey of Monmouth. 



OLD ENGLISH (1216-1327). 

BOBEET OF GLOUCESTER (1230-1285): wrote a rhyming 
history of England, from the landing of Brutus to Edward I. 

ROBERT MANNYNG or DE BRUNNE, the author of a 
chronicle like that of Robert of Grloucester. 



MIDDLE ENGLISH (1327-1558). 

JOHN GOWER (1320-1402): wrote moral poetry; called by 
Chaucer the ' Moral Gower.' 

GEOFFREY CHAUCER (1328-1400): the father of English 
literature ; the first great English poet. Chief work : ' The 
Canterbury Tales.' 

JOHN MANDEVILLE (1300-1372) : wrote an account of his 
travels, said * to be the oldest book in English prose.' 

JOHN WICKLIFFE (1324-1384), called ♦ The Morning Star of 
the English Reformation,' Professor of Divinity at Oxford, 
Rector of Lutterworth : translated the Bible into English. 

WILLIAM LANGLAND, a priest : wrote • The Vision of Piers 
Plowman,' a satire upon the corruption of the age (1362). 

JOHN BARBOUR (1320-1395), Archdeacon of Aberdeen : wrote 
a poem about Robert Bruce. 



JOHN FROISSART (1337-1401), a native of Valenciennes: was 
a distinguished French writer of this period. The four books of 
his ' Chronicle ' relate chiefly to English affairs. 



148 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



LEADING DATES OF THE PEEIOD (1154-1399). 



GENERAL EVENTS. 



Scutage introduced .... 


1159 


A..D. 


Henet II. 


Becket murdered 


1170 


5J 


>> 


Massacre of the Jews .... 


1189 


>) 


ElCHARD I. 


Interdict 1208-14 


J5 


John. 


The first Bridge in London finished . 


1209 


)) 


j> 


Begging Friars first appear in England 


1221 


>) 


Henry III. 


Jews banished from England 


1290 


>} 


Edtv^abd I. 


Baliol, King of Scotland 


1292 


it 


>) 


Robert Bruce crowned .... 


1306 


JJ 


j> 


Flemish "Weavers settle at Norwich . 


1331 


>J 


Edward II. 


The Order of the Garter instituted 


1349 


>J 


Edward IH 


The English Language adopted in 








Courts of Law .... 


1362 


>J 


» 


Death of the Black Prince . 


1376 


J> 


)f 


The Bible translated by Wickliffe 


1380 


»> 


ElCHARD II. 



CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES. 



Council of Clarendon 
Magna Charta 

Mad Parliament held at Oxford 
House of Commons founded . 
Statute of Mortmain passed . 
Ordainers .... 
Statute of Provisors passed 
The Statute of Treasons passed 
The Wonderful Parliament . 
Statute of Praemunire passed 



1164 A. D. Henry II. 



1215 


5» 


John. 


1258 


5) 


Henry TTT. 


1265 


» 


JJ 


1279 


J> 


Edward I. 


1310 


>> 


Edward II. 


1344 


»> 


Edward III. 


1362 


JJ 


JJ 


1388 


JJ 


Eichard II. 


1393 


JJ 


» 



SOCIAL LIEE UNDER PLANT AGENETS PROPER. 147 



WARS, BATTLES, TREATIES. 



The Third Crusade 




1190-92 A.D. 


Richard I. 


Battle of Bouvines 




1214 


John. 


„ Lincoln , 






. 1217 „ 


Henry III. 


„ Lewes . 






1264 „ 


JJ 


„ Evesham 






1265 „ 


)) 


„ Falkirk 






. 1297 „ 


Edward I. 


„ Bannockhurn 






1314 „ 


Edward II. 


Halidon Hill 






1333 „ 


Edward III 


French War begins 






1338 „ 




Battle of Sluys . 






1340 „ 




Crecy . 






1346 „ 




„ Neville's Cross 






>> jj 




„ Poitiers 






1356 „ 




Treaty of Bretigni, or the Great Peace 1360 „ 




Wat Tyler's Rebellion . . . 1381 „ 


Richard II. 


Battle of Otterbourne, or C 


hevy 


Chas 


e 1388 „ 


]> 



CHANGES OF DOMINION. 



Conquest of Ireland 

„ Wales 

Calais taken . . 

Poitou and Guienne acquired 
Loss of the French Provinces 



1172 A.D. Henry n. 
1282 „ Edward I. 
1347 „ Edward III. 
1360 „ 
1375 „ 



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HE.NEY IV. 



149 



HOUSE OF LAN0A8TEB. 



HENRY IV. (Son of John of Ghent) 
HENRY V. (Son) .... 
HENRY VI. (Son). 



. 1399 A.D. 
. 1413 „ 
1422-61 „ 



HENRY IV. (Bolingbroke). 
Born 1367 A.D, Began to Eeign 1399 A.D. Died 1413 A.D. 



His Accession. 

War with Scotland. 

Owen Glendower's Insurrection. 

The Percies' Eebellion. 



War with France. 

Prince of Wales. 

Death and Character of the King. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 



Accession. War with Scotland. 

Heney IV., the son of John of Ghent, Duke of Lan- 
caster, was born at Bolingbroke, in Lincolnshire. The 
right to the crown by descent belonged to Edmund 
Mortimer, Earl of March, a descendant of Lionel Duke of 
Clarence, the third son of Edward III., while John of 
Ghent was only the fourth son. This fact must be re- 
membered, as it afterwards led to the long civil wars of the 
Roses. The Earl of March being a child of seven years 
old, his claims were passed over, and he was kept by 
Henry in honourable custody in Windsor Castle. 

Though Henry had succeeded in mounting the throne, 
his seat at first was not very secure. Many of the nobility 
were dissatisfied with the change of government, and 
several foreign kings refused to acknowledge a title won 
by usurpation. The plots of the discontented nobles were 
treacherously revealed to the king, and the conspirators 
perished upon the scaffold. As Robert of Scotland refused 
to recognise Henry's right to the throne, the Litter marched 
8 



150 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

with an army to Leith, but, provisions falling short, he 

was compelled to retire. This invasion revived the old 

hostility of the border lords, and in 1402 Earl Douglas led 

10,000 Scots across the border. Henry Percy (Hot- 

spur), the son of the Earl of Northumberland, 

met them at Homildon Hill, slew 800 of their 

* * number, and captured Douglas and several of the 

Scottish nobility. 

The English king ordered the Percies not to ransom 
their prisoners — an order which gave great offence to that 
family, as it interfered with their rights according to the 
laws of war in that age. 

Owen Glendower's Insurrection. The Percies' Rebellion. 

Henry's usurpation of the government encouraged the 
Welsh to make an insurrection. Owen Glendower, the 
great-grandson of Llewellyn, the last prince of Wales, had 
been in the service of Eichard II., and i)n the deposition 
of his master, he withdrew to Wales, and Avas soon in open 
quarrel with Lord Grey of Euthyn, who had seized his 
estates. Henry sent Sir Edmund Mortimer, uncle of the 
Earl of March, to the assistance of Lord Grey, but the 
Welsh rallied round Glendower, took Mortimer and Grey 
prisoners, and defied once more the English power, 
(1402 A.D.) 

The Welsh leader received encouragement in his resist- 
ance from the family of the Percies, whose anger concerning 
the ransom of the Scots had been further increased by 
Henry's refusal to obtain the release of their kinsman Mor- 
timer. A confederacy was formed against the king by the 
Earl of Northumberland, his son Hotspur, his brother the 
Earl of Worcester, and Douglas. Their plan was to join 
Glendower^ and then to march against their com- 
^A(\*i ' ■'^^^ enemy. A sudden illness prevented the 
elder Percy from accompanying the army, but 
Hotspur, marching with 12,000 men, was attacked 
by the king at Shrewsbury, before Glendower's troops 
could cross the Severn. The battle was long and bloody ; 



HENEY IV. 151 

both sides fought with the greatest bravery ; but Hotspur's 
death in the thick of the light decided the fortunes of the 
day, and the hard-won victory fell to the royalists. The 
loss on both sides was great ; one-third of the rebel army 
fell on the field ; Worcester and Douglas were taken pri- 
soners ; the former was beheaded at Shrewsbury, but the 
latter was treated with marked respect. In this battle 
Henry, the young Prince of Wales, distinguished himself, 
and gave evidence of the valour and skill which made him 
renowned in after years. The Earl of Northumberland 
was brought to trial for his share in the confederacy, and 
received pardon. The Welsh held out, though several 
armies were sent against them, till the following reign. 

The pardon of Northumberland did not reconcile him to 
the king. Two years afterwards, he entered into another 
conspiracy with the Earl of Nottingham, and Scrope, 
Archbishop of York ; but failing again, he escaped to Scot- 
land, while the two other leaders were taken and executed. 
This is the first instance in English history in which an 
archbishop perished by the hands of the executioner. (1405.) 
In the same y«ar, Henry obtained an advantage over the 
Scots by the capture of Prince James, the son of Eobert III., 
while on his Avay to France. The prince was detained in 
England for nineteen years. 

Northumberland, after living for some time as an exile 
in Scotland, invaded the northern counties for the recovery 
of his estates, but at Bramham Moor, in Yorkshire, he was 
defeated by the sheriff of the county and slain. (1408.) 

War with. France. The Prince of "Wales. Death, etc. 
of the King. 

The King of France was very angry at the deposition of 
his brother-in-law Richard II., and considered his truce 
with England at an end. He demanded the dowry and 
jewels of the widowed Isabella ; but Henry kept them as 
part of the ransom of King John, captured at Poitiers. 
Though no open declaration of war was made between the 
two countries, hostile squadrons scoured the seas, and the 



152 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

coasts of each were often ravaged. The unhappy state of 
the government of France gave Henry an advantage. 
Charles VI. became imbecile, and the country was torn 
by the rival factions of the houses of Orleans and Bur- 
gundy. By assisting each of these in turn, as advantage 
promised best, Henry regained the sovereignty of Aqui- 
taine, Poitou, and Angouleme. 

The conduct of young Henry, Prince of Wales, was a 
source of great grief to his father. Though showing, now 
and then, gleams of a better nature, he was led astray by 
low and worthless companions. When one of these was 
brought to trial for riotous conduct, the young prince 
made his appearance in court, for the purpose of overawing 
the judge. Sir WiUiam Gascoigne. The trial ended in the 
prisoner's condemnation ; and when sentence of imprison- 
ment was pronounced, the prince, in a rage, drew his sword 
upon the judge. For this unlawful act, Gascoigne sent the 
royal offender to prison. The prince submitted with a 
D-ood grace, and afterwards treated the judge with marked 
respect for his courage and faithful vindication of the laws. 

Henry did not long survive this occurrence. Fits of 
epilepsy wore out his strength ; and the last seized him while 
praying in the chapel of Edward the Confessor, at West- 
minster. He died in the forty-sixth year of his age and 
the thirteenth of his reign. (March 20, 1413.) 

Henry was remarkable for forethought, vigilance, and 
courage. The successful way in which he crushed all 
opposition and maintained himself firmly on the throne is 
an evidence of the vigour and daring of his character. He 
was a man of middle size ; and sometime before his death 
his face was disfigured by an eruption, which the super- 
stition of the time said was a judgment for the execution 
of Archbishop Scrope. 

He was twice married ; but his children were all by his 
first wife, Mary de Bohun, daughter of the Earl of Hereford, 
and these were : Henry, who became king ; Thomas Duke 
of Clarence ; John Duke of Bedford ; Humphrey Duke of 
Gloucester ; Blanche, and Philippa. 



HENEY IV. 163 



Miscellaneous Facts. 



This reign is noted for the rapid growth of the power of 
the House of Commons. The members claimed the ex- 
clusive right of originating money bills ; they maintained 
the liberty of discussing all public questions without the 
king's interference ; they secured for themselves freedom 
from arrest during their attendance at the Parliament ; and 
they claimed protection from undue returns of elections 
being made by the sheriffs in the interest of the court. 

This reign, too, is distinguished for the first execution 
for religious opinions. Henry, in order to secure the 
support of the clergy, passed a law, in 1401, by which 
persons accused of heretical opinions might be tried by 
the bishop and burned by the sheriff. The Lollards, in 
consequence, were persecuted, and many of them suffered 
death. John Sawtre, a London clergyman, was burned 
at Smithfield (1401), being the first in England who died 
for his religious opinions. LoUardism, however, increased 
more than ever. 

At the coronation of Henry, the Order of the Bath was 
instituted. It was so called because those who were to 
become members had first to bathe themselves, as a token 
of the loyalty and purity of their minds. The celebrated 
Richard Whittington, a rich London merchant, lived in 
this reign. He devoted a great portion of his wealth, 
which was chiefly realised by his ship, ^ The Cat,' to 
religious and charitable purposes. 

A plague visited London, and carried off 30,000 people 
(1407.) 



154 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



HENRY V. (Monmoutli). 
Born 1388 A.B. Began to Reign 1413 A.D. Died 1422 A.D, 



Henry's Accession and Reform. 
Persecution of the Lollards. 
War with France. 
Agincourt. 



Treaty of Troyes. 

Death and Character of the 

King. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



Henry's Accession and Reform. Persecution of the 

LoUards. 

Henry V., the eldest son of the last king, was born in 
Monmouth. His father's death worked a great change in 
his character. Dismissing his riotous companions, he 
gathered round him the wisest of his father's counsellors, 
among whom was Judge Gascoigne. He liberated the 
Earl of March, and restored the Percy family to their 
estates. 

The Lollards, on account of their rapid increase, were 
becoming a powerful body in the kingdom ; and as their 
opinions were thought to be dangerous to the Church and 
king, the fire of persecution was directed against them. The 
leader of this party. Sir John Oldcastle, commonly called 
Lord Cobham, was condemned to the flames and sent to 
the Tower ; but he managed to escape before the day of 
execution. He is said to have formed a conspiracy to seize 
the king's person ; and a large party of Lollards having 
been found in St. Giles's Fields at midnight, gave a colour 
to this accusation. The meeting was dispersed by Henry's 
vigilance ; about thirty who had attended it suffered death ; 
Cobham fled to Wales, and was not apprehended till four 
years afterwards. He was then put to death by being 
roasted in chains over a slow fire. (1418 a.d.) 



HENRY V. 166 



War with France. Agincourt. 

The distracted state of France, caused by the illness of 
Charles YI., and the rivalry of the Orleanists and Burgun- 
dians, presented a great temptation to a young, ardent, 
and ambitious prince to make an attempt to recover the 
lost English possessions in that country. Henry, seizing 
his opportunity, demanded the restoration of all the posses- 
sions held in France by King John, the hand of Charles's 
daughter in marriage, and vp-ith her a dowry of 2,000,000 
crowns. Having received an unsatisfactory answer to this 
demand, the young king revived the claim of Edward HI. 
to the French crown, and immediately prepared to maintain 
it by force of arms. He was just on the point of starting for 
France, when a conspiracy to put the Earl of IMarch on the 
throne was discovered and nipped in the bud. The leaders 
— his cousin the Earl of Cambridge, Lord Scrope, and Sir 
Thomas Grey — suffered death, but the Earl of March re- 
ceived a general pardon. (1415 a.d.) 

After crushing this conspiracy, Henry set sail from 
Southampton with 30,000 men, and landed at Harfleur, 
which he took after a siege of five weeks. During the 
operations, one-half his army perished from sickness and 
wounds, and, as the transports had been sent home, he deter- 
mined to march with the remainder of his troops to Calais. 
The French, however, had by this time massed a strong 
force in Normandy, and had taken every precaution against 
the invader. Henry found all the country laid waste, and 
all the bridges across the Somme broken down. He fortu- 
nately found an unguarded ford, and succeeded in carrying 
his army across. Marching straight for Calais, he was 
surprised to find a French force of 60,000 men blocking up 
his way on the plains of Agincourt. There was nothing left 
but to cut a way through, and though the odds were fear- 
ful, at least four to one, Henry, remembering the glorious 
victories of Crecy and Poitiers, determined to fight to the 
last. The archers, protected by sharp stakes fixed 
in the ground, were placed in the front, and a wood 



156 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

on eacli side covered the flanks. The French horse and 
men-at-arms advanced to the attack, but were quickly 
thrown into confusion by the English bowmen. It was 
Poitiers over again : three hours' fighting found the field 
of battle covered with the slaughtered French. The dukes 
of Orleans and Bourbon, with 14,000 men, were taken 
prisoners ; and the Constable of France and the 
Oct. 25, flower of the French nobility, together with 
1415 10,000 men, fell on the fatal field of Agincourt. 
A.D. The English loss amounted only to 1,600 men. 
Henry, not being in a position to follow up his. 
victory, proceeded to Calais, and thence to Dover, where 
he was received with the greatest enthusiasm. Tlie people 
of London welcomed his return with delight ; and the Par- 
liament voted him large sums of money for the further 
prosecution of the war. 



Treaty of Troyes. Death and Character of Henry. 

In 1417 A.D., Henry again set sail for France, with a 
larger army than before. The smaller towns submitted to 
him at once ; Eouen fell after a siege of six months, and 
then all Normandy was at his feet. The factions which 
were ruining France were about to sink their differences in 
the face of a foreign invasion, when the murder of the Duke 
of Burgundy threw all the power of his party on the side 
of the English king. Thirsting for revenge, that faction 
agreed to grant all the demands of Henry. A 

1420 treaty was signed at Troyes, in which it was 

A.D. stipulated: (1) that Henry should marry the 

Princess Catherine ; (2) that Charles VI. should 

retain the title and dignity of King of France during his 

lifetime ; (3) that Henry should be regent for the present, 

and should succeed to the throne on the death of Charles. 

A few days afterwards, Henry married Catherine, and 
went to Paris, where the Treaty of Troyes was ratified by 
the Estates of the realm. The Dauphin of France, eldest 
son of Charles, however, was still in. arms, but quite imable 



HENEY V. 157 

to withstand the prowess of Henry. When the latter 
visited England with his young bride, the dauphin, assisted 
by a large number of Scots, defeated the English troops at 
Beauj6. and slew the Duke of Clarence. Henry imme- 
diately returned to France, where his presence soon turned 
the tide of victory against the dauphin. He chased his 
enemies across the Loire to the south, where again they 
were pursued by the united forces of the English and Bur- 
gundians, almost to the point of destruction. Just at this 
time Henry's queen was delivered of a son, whose birth 
caused great rejoicings both in Paris and London. In the 
midst of all this prosj)erity and glory, the hand of death 
fell on the young king, and put an end to all his mighty 
projects. Seized with a fistula, which baffled the 
skill of his physicians, he died at Yincennes, if 09 ' 
near Paris, in the thirty-fifth year of his age and 
tenth of his reign. His body was brought to 
England, and buried in Westminster Abbey. He left the 
regency of France to his elder brother, the Duke of Bed- 
ford ; that of England to his younger, the Duke of 
Gloucester ; and the care of his son's person to the Earl of 
Warwick. 

Henry V. was a warrior and a statesman. The greatest 
fault in his character was ambition. He had the power of 
attaching friends warmly to his side, and winning favour 
from his enemies. In person, he was rather tall, and 
handsome ; his limbs were slender, but full of vigour, and 
he excelled in all manly and warlike exercises. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

Henry's widow married soon after his death a Welsh 
gentleman, Sir Owen Tudor ; she bore him two sons, of 
whom the eldest was Edmund, Earl of Eichmond, who 
became the father of Henry VII. 

The annual revenue of the crown at this time amounted 
to about 86,000Z., but the expenditure often exceeded this 
amount. Calais alone is said to have cost nearly 20,000/. 
a year. But the Parliament, dazzled by Henry's victories, 



158 



HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 



willingly granted him large sums of money ; taxes were 
even granted to him for life. 

During this reign, the English navy, as distinct from the 
merchant service, was established. Henry caused some 
ships of war to be built at Southampton. 

In 1415, London was for the first time lighted with 
lanterns ; and a year afterwards, herrings, cured in the 
Dutch fashion, were first sold in the same city. 




JSixight in Armour, and Lady's Costume of the period. 



HENEY VI. 169 



HENRY VI. (Windsor). 

Born 1421 A.D. Began to Eeign 1422 A.D. 
Dethroned 1461 A.D. 



The Regency. 
English Affairs in France. 
Joan of Arc. 

Loss of French Provinces.. 
Fall of the Dukes of Grloucester 
and Suffolk. 



Jack Cade's Rebellion. 
Richard Duke of York. 
Wars of the Roses. 
Character of Henry. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



The Regency. English Affairs in France. Joan of Arc. 
Loss of French Provinces. 

Henry VI., the only child of Henry V., was born at 
Windsor, and was only nine months old at his father's 
death. The Parliament appointed a comicil of twenty to 
manage the affairs of the kingdom ; the regency of France 
was given to the Duke of Bedford ; Humphrey Duke of 
Gloucester was made Protector of England, and the young 
king's person and education were entrusted to Beaufort, 
Bishop of Winchester, the son of John of Gaunt, in con- 
junction with the Earl of Warwick. A few weeks after 
the death of Henry V., Charles VI. of France died, and, 
according to the treaty of Troyes, the infant Kenry was 
proclaimed King of France. But the late dauphin, as- 
suming the title of Charles VII. of France on his father's 
death, asserted his rightful claim to the throne. At Cre- 
vant, in 1423, and Verneuil, in 1424, he met with crushing 
defeats, and was compelled to retire across the Loire in a 
hopeless state. In 1428, Bedford formed the resolution of 
crossing that river, and marching into those provinces in 
the south of France which adhered to the cause of Charles, 
The first step necessary for this purpose was the capture 
of Orleans, and it was therefore determined to besiege that 
town. This work was entrusted to the Ear] of Salisbury, 



160 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 

one of the most famous commanders of the age, but he 
was killed during the siege, and was succeeded by the Earl 
of Suffolk. While the English lay before Orleans, a 
battle took place at Eouvrai, in the neighbourhood, which 
is known as the Battle of Herrings. As Lent was 
drawing near, a convoy of herrings was sent from Paris 
to the English camp, and on the way it was attacked 
unsuccessfully by a superior French force. (1429.) The 
failure of this attack and the successful progress of the 
siege greatly discouraged the French. Charles was about 
to give up the contest and leave France, when the tide 
of victory was turned in his favour through the agency of a 
peasant girl. 

In the village of Domremi, near Vaucouleurs, in Lor- 
raine, there lived a country girl of nineteen years of age, 
named Joan of Arc, who was a servant in the village inn. 
As she heard, day after day, the story of the wrongs of her 
king and people, her enthusiastic nature was stirred to its 
depths, and she proclaimed herself inspired by Heaven to 
deliver her country. At first her statements were received 
with ridicule, but at length, by her earnestness and perse- 
verance, she succeeded in gaining admission to the presence 
of Charles. She told him that Heaven had sent her to 
drive the English from Orleans, and take him to Rheims 
for his coronation. Pretending to believe her story, he paid 
her every honour ; and to inspirit the soldiers, wonderful 
stories were circulated in proof of her divine mission. 
Mounted on a grey steed, and clad in armour, her first 
exploit was to conduct a convoy of provisions through the 
besieging lines into Orleans. The English, believing her 
to be a sorceress, lost their wonted courage, and let her 
pass without striking a blow. The townspeople were as 
much elated as the besiegers were dispirited. Every sally 

1 AQQ frc>m the town under the peasant girl's leadership 
succeeded, and the English were compelled at last 
to raise the siege. This great success obtained 
for the heroic girl the name of the ' Maid of Orleans.' 

Her first promise was now fulfilled ; and the coronation of 
Charles was the next thing to be done. Two months after 



HENKY VI. 161 

the raising of the siege of OrleanSj the king was actually 
crowned at liheims. Then Joan said her mission was at an 
end, and begged leave to return to her home, but Charles, 
knowing her worth to his cause, persuaded her to remain. 
In a sortie from Compiegne, in 1430 a.d., she was taken 
prisoner by the Burgundians, and handed over to the 
English regent. After an imprisonment of twelve months, 
she was brought to trial on the charge of sorcery, 
and was condemned by an ecclesiastical court to ^ . ' 
be burnt. This cruel sentence was carried out in 

A.D. 

the market-place of Rouen. 

The coronation of Charles at Eheims led the English to 
proceed at once with the coronation of their young king. 
Henry was first crowned at Westminster, and then taken 
to Paris, where a similar ceremony took place. But the 
English cause in France grew worse and worse. The 
powerful Duke of Burgundy quarrelled with the Duke of 
Bedford, and he determined, in consequence, to reconcile 
himself with the court of France. At Arras, in 1435 a.d., 
he formed a treaty of friendship with Charles. This event 
was almost immediately followed by the death of the Duke 
of Bedford at Eouen. Before the new regent could arrive, 
Paris fell into the hands of the French king. Disputes in 
England between the Duke of Gloucester and the Bishop 
of Winchester prevented proper assistance being sent to 
France, and in 1444, the English were glad to make a truce 
of two years. During this period, Henry married Margaret, 
daughter of Rene, Duke of Anjou and Maine. The Earl of 
Suffolk, who had negotiated this marriage, engaged fey a 
secret article to give up the provinces of Maine and Anjou, 
which were called the ' Keys of Normandy,' to Margaret's 
father ; and as he was a dependent of Charles VH., the gift of 
these places proved most injurious to the English cause. As 
soon as ever the truce expired, French troops poured into 
Normandy through Maine and Anjou, and soon effected an 
easy conquest. Turning to the south, the cities of Guienne 
quickly fell into their hands, till, in 1451, only Calais re- 
mained in possession of the English. 



162 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

Fall of tKe Dukes of Gloucester and Suffolk. 
Jack Cade's Rebellion. 

During the long minority of the king, and the wars in 
France, affairs in England were in a very Tinsatisfactorj state. 
As Henry grew up to manhood, he showed signs of weakness 
of intellect and unfitness for government ; and therefore 
the control of public affairs continued in the hands of the 
Duke of Gloucester and Cardinal Beaufort. The marriage 
of Henry with Margaret of Anjou, who was a princess of 
strong intellect and great energy, soon worked a change in 
the government. She lent all her influence to the party of 
Beaufort, and Gloucester, two years after the marriage, 
was accused of treason, thrown into prison, and murdered. 
Scarcely had six weeks passed before Beaufort followed his 
nephew Gloucester to the grave. The Duke of Suffolk, 
who had brought about the marriage with Margaret, now 
became the king's chief adviser; but he was most un- 
popular, on account of his share in the loss of the French 
provinces. He was also suspected of having the chief 
hand in the death of Gloucester. Parliament impeached 
him for high treason in 1450 ; but the king, to save his 
life, banished him for five years. His enemies, however, 
were too active and determined to allow him to escape. 
The ship which was taking him to Calais was boarded near 
Dover by some sailors sent on purpose, who took him on 
board their own craft. There he was saluted with the 
words, ' Welcome, traitor ! ' and after a mock trial he was 
placed in a boat, his head struck off with a rusty sword, 
and his body thrown into the sea. 

A crime like that just mentioned shows how unsettled 
the country was, and how ripe for the schemes of designing 
men. A rumour was set afloat in Kent that the king was 
preparing to punish the people of that county because they 
had furnished the ships which had seized the Duke of 
Suffolk. An insurrection immediately broke out, headed 
by Jack Cade, an Irishman, who took the favourite name 
of Mortimer. Twenty thousand men marched under his 



HENRY VI. 163 

banner to Blackheath, and, after defeating tlie royal forces 
at Seven Oaks, he entered London in triumph. At first, 
he maintained good order and discipline among his fol- 
lowers, but on the third day the pillage of some rich houses 
roused the Londoners, who drove the rebels out of the city, 
and repulsed them with great slaughter. The Kentish 
men were so dispirited that, on a promise of pardon, they 
withdrew to Rochester, and dispersed to their homes. The 
pardon, however, was withdrawn, and Cade, in -t >ie/> 
his attempt to escape, was killed in a garden near 
Lewes, Sussex, by a gentleman named Iden. His 
head was struck off and placed on London Bridge. 

Richard Duke of York. Wars of the Roses. 
Character of Henry. 

After the su23pression of Cade's rebellion, the Duke of 
Somerset, grandson of John of Gaunt, was placed at the 
head of the government. He had formerly been governor 
of Normandy, but the loss of that province made him very 
unpopular with the English. Besides, as Henry had as 
yet no heir, and as his government was not in favour with 
a great portion of the people, attention was turned to 
Richard Duke of York, the son of Anne, heiress of the 
house of Lionel Duke of Clarence. At that time, Richard 
held the post of Lieutenant of L^eland ; but hearing of 
Somerset's promotion, he marched to London at the head 
of 10,000 men, and demanded that minister's removal from 
power and authority. This attempt failed, and York, after 
a short imprisonment, was allowed to retire to his castle of 
Wigmore, on the borders of Wales. (1452). In the follow- 
ing year, the queen gave birth to a son, who received the 
name of Edward. Soon after, the king became insane, and 
the York party was strong enough to upset the govern- 
ment. Somerset was sent to the Tower, and Richard of 
York was appointed by the Parliament Protector -i^t-A 
of the kingdom. Henry's recovery in the follow- 
ing year again brought a change in the govern- 
ment. York was removed from his protectorate ; Somerset 



164 HISTOEY OP ENGLAND. 

was released, and re-a]Dpointed to his former post. The 
Duke of York then levied an army for the purpose of re- 
moving Somerset ; but as yet he made no claim to the 
throne. Now began the Wars of the Roses, which con- 
tinued for thirty years, during which time twelve pitched 
battles were fought, and eighty princes of the blood wore 
slain, and almost all the ancient nobility destroyed. The 
party of York took for its badge a white rose ; the party of 
the house of Lancaster a red one ; hence the name of the 
quarrel. 

The first battle took place at St. Albans, in which 

-_ Somerset was killed and the king taken prisoner. 

- . -- ' '^^® death of Somerset removed the cause of the 

strife : and when Henry again fell ill, the Duke 

of York was appointed Protector. In 1456, the 

king recovered his authority, and for the next two or three 

years the contending parties were to all appearances friendly 

to each other. The chief supporters of Eichard of York 

were the Earl of Salisbury and his son the Earl of 

Warwick. A quarrel between one of the king's retinue 

and one of the Earl of Warwick's led to a fierce party 

combat, and Warwick, thinking that his life was in danger, 

fled to Calais, of which he was governor. The Yorkists 

and Lancastrians again took up arms against each other, 

and the civil war began in earnest. 

At Bloreheath, in Staffordshire, the Lancastrians were 
again defeated, with the loss of their leader. Lord Audley. 
A month later the Lancastrians gained an easy 
-f/t-Q ' victory at Ludlow, through the defection of the 
Marshal of the Yorkist camp ; and Richard, in con- 
sequence, withdrew to Ireland. The following 
year, the Yorkists were again in arms under the command 
of the Earl of Warwick, and defeated the royal forces at 
Northampton, where the king was taken pri- 
^Infx '. soner ; while the queen and her son sought refuge 
in Scotland. Now, for the first time, Eichard 

A.D. . . 

openly claimed the crown by right of descent. 
The Parliament acknowledged his claims, and agreed that 
he should succeed to the throne on the death of Henry,, 



HENRY VI. 165 

But Margaret's spirit was roused when she heard that her 
boy was to be shut out from the succession, and, collecting 
an army, she marched southwards, and defeated 
the Yorkists at Wakefield. Here, Eichard was i/ort' 
killed ; and his head, adorned with a paper crown, 
was fixed upon the Avails of York. His second 
son, the Duke of Eutland, a youth of seventeen, was mur- 
dered by Lord Clifford in revenge for his father's death, 
who had perished in the battle of St. Albans. The Earl 
of Salisbury, too, the father of the ' King-Maker,' Avas taken 
prisoner, and beheaded at Pontefract. 

This defeat and bloodshed made the Yorkists furious. 
The cause of the fallen Duke was taken up by his eldest 
son, Edward Earl of March, Avho defeated the -p -^ c, 
Lancastrians at Mortimer's Cross, in Hereford- i4gi' 
shire. In this battle, Owen Tudor, who had . ^ 

-r 1 A.D. 

married the widow of Henry v., was taken 
prisoner, and beheaded in retaliation for the cruelties 
committed at Wakefield. Margaret made up for this 
defeat by a victory over the Earl of Warwick at -p, , , _ 
St. Albans, where the king fell into the hands of lioi ' 
his own party. The citizens of London refused 
to receive her, and as the young Duke of York was 
marching from the west with a large force, she was compelled 
to retreat northwards. The duke, however, was received in 
London with shouts of joy ; and having made 
his claim to the throne in the presence of the -j^^i 
peers, prelates, and citizens, he was proclaimed 
king, under the title of Edward TV. 

Thus the dynasty of the House of Lancaster was brought 
to an end, after lasting sixty-two years. Henry YI. lived 
ten years longer. He Avas totally unfit, both in body and 
mind, to hold the reins of government. In private life he 
Avas meek, gentle, and forgiving. To him we are indebted 
for the school of Eton, and for King's College, Cambridge. 

By his Avife, Margaret of Anjou, he had one son, 
Edward, who afterwards married Anne, daughter of the 
Earl of WarAvick. 



136 HISTORY OF ENaLAND. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

Under the Lancastrian kings, the power of the Parlia- 
ment made good progress. The Peers continued to hold 
the chief power, but the right of granting supplies of 
money lay with the Commons, and this constituted their 
strength. In this reign the practice of introducing ' Bills ' 
into Parliament commenced. The right of voting for the 
election of members of parliament was limited to those 
who owned lands of the annual value of forty shillings. 
The members were allowed four shillings per day for 
travelling expenses, and every protection was afforded 
them ; but sometimes there was considerable difficulty in 
getting candidates for parliamentary honours. 

In the wars of this reign gunpowder came into general 
use. Eton College, and King's College, Cambridge, were 
founded by Henry VI. ; Queen's College, Cambridge, by 
his queen Margaret. Glasgow University and the colleges 
of All Souls and Magdalene, Oxford, were established. 
The title of Viscount first came into use in this reign ; and 
the first Lord Mayor's Show took place in London. 

Science and art made steady progress. Halley's Comet 
was first observed in 1456 ; and the manufacture of glass 
in England began in 1457. On the Continent, the im- 
portant art of printing was invented and improved. John 
Geinsfleish, of Haarlaam, first invented the art, 1430 ; 
Faust printed the Psalms from wooden blocks, 1442 ; 
Guttenburg cut types from metals, 1444 ; the roller 
printing press was invented, 1450 ; and types cast in 
hollow moulds by Schoeffer came into use, 1452. En- 
graving on copper was invented by a goldsmith of Florence, 
1458. The knowledge of geography increased. The 
Senegal Eiver and the Azores were discovered by the 
Portuguese, and the Cape Verde Islands by the Genoese. 



EDWAED IV. 



107 



HOUSE OF YOEE. 

EDWARD IV. (Son of Richard of York) 
EDWARD V. (Son) .... 
RICHARD III. (Uncle) 



, 1461 A.B. 
. 1483 „ 
1483-5 „ 



EDWARD IV. 
Born 1443 A.D. Began to Reign 1461 A.D. Died 1483 A.D. 



Wars of the Eoses Continued. 
Deposition of Edward. 
Henry Kestored. 

Battles of Barnet and Tewkes- 
bury. 



War with France. 

Treaty of Pecquigni. 

Duke of Clarence. 

Death and Character of Edward. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 



Wars of the Roses Continued. 

Edward IV. was nineteen years old when lie was pro- 
claimed king by his own party. He had still much to do 
before gaining full possession of the crown, as the North 
continued faithful to Henry. The Earl of Warwick, at 
the head of 49,000 men, was sent against Margaret, who 
had a force of 60,000 in Yorkshire, and at Towton the 
armies met, where a most desperate battle took place, 
which ended in the complete defeat of the 
Lancastrians. No quarter was given, and nearly 
38,000 men perished on that fatal field. Mar- 
garet and Henry fled to Scotland, while Edward 
returned to London to summon a Parliament for the 
settlement of the government. This Assembly acknow- 
ledged Edward's right to the throne, and passed an Act of 
condemnation of Henry VL, Queen Margaret, and Prince 
Edward. The spirited queen Avent to France for help, 
and returned with a body of troops. Around 
these, tJie shattered ranks of the Lancastrians 
again rallied ; but at Hedgeley Moor (April 25) 
and at Hexham (May 15) .they were defeated by the 



Mar. 29, 

1461 

A.D. 



1464 

A.D. 



168 HISTORY OE ENGLAND. 

1 orkists. Margaret and her son escaped into the woods, 
and through the kindness of a robber they reached the sea- 
coast, whence they escaped to Flanders, Henry was not so 
fortunate ; for a twelvemonth he lay concealed in Lanca- 
shire, but he was at last discovered and thrown into the 
Tower. 

Deposition of Edward. Eestoration of Henry. " 

Much of the success of Edward was due to the powerful 
influence of the Earl of Warwick, but in 1464 the king 
took a step which greatly offended the earl, and ultimately 
led to his own downfall, Edward privately married Lady 
Elizabeth Grey, the widow of a knight who fell on the 
Lancastrian side in the second battle of St. Albans. The 
king came accidentally to the house of her father, Sir 
Richard Woodville, after a hunting party, and was so 
struck with the beauty of the young widow, that he oifered 
to share his throne Avith her. The marriage took place at 
the time when the Earl of Warwick had gone to France, at 
Edward's request to solicit for him a princess of Savoy, 
and it was not made known for several months. Warwick's 
anger on his return was great ; but when he saw his place 
at court filled by the family and friends of the queen, and 
the highest honours bestowed upon them, his haughty 
temper carried him away into open rebellion against the 
king. Many of the nobility, jealous of the nev*^ influence 
at coiu-t, supported Warwick, and the king's second brother, 
the Duke of Clarence, Avho had married Isabel, the earl's 
eldest daughter, also joined him. An insurrection was 
fomented in Yorkshire and Lincoln. The royal troops 

1 AftQ '^^^^^ defeated at Edgecote, near Banbury, when 
the queen's father, who had been created Earl 
Eivers, and her brother, were taken prisoners and 
beheaded. In the following year, Warwick and Clarence 
were denounced as traitors, and, escaping to France, they 
met Margaret of Anjou at the court of Louis XL They 
at once made common cause with her, and the union was 
further cemented by a marriage between Prince Edward 
and Warwick's second daughter Anne. 



EDWAKD IV. 169 

Assisted by Louis, Warwick landed at Dartmoutli with 
a small body of troops, after an absence of five months. 
So great was his popularity, that in a few days his army 
amounted to 60,000 men. Edward took ship at Lynn, 
in Norfolk, and sailed for Flanders. Thus the Earl of 
Warwick, in eleven days after landing, found 
hynself master of the kingdom. Henry VL was 2%!' 
taken from the Tower, and proclaimed king by •*-^*" 
the earl, who was noAv popularly called the 
' King-Maker.' A Parliament was called early in the fol- 
lowing year, which entrusted the regency of the kingdom 
to Warwick and Clarence till Prince Edward should come 
of age ; and in default of that prince's issue, Clarence was 
declared successor to the crown. 



Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury. War with 

France. 

Henry was not long left in enjoyment of the crown. In less 
than six months, Edward IV. landed at Bavenspur, in York- 
shire, with a force of nearly 2,000 men, which his brother- 
in-law, the Duke of Bupgundy, had given him. The friends 
of the White Eose soon gathered round him ; and marching 
sonth,he entered London without opposition, and sentHenry 
VI. again to the Tower. Warwick took up a position at 
Barnet, in Middlesex, and there awaited Edward's attack. 
But during the night before the battle, Clarence deserted 
his father-in-law, and took with him to his brother's camp 
a force of 12,000 men. In the Battle of Barnet, 
the Lancastrians were hopelessly beaten ; Warwick ^^ wi ' 
fell in the thickest of the fight, and scarcely a 
leading noble of his party escaped with life. 

On the same day, Margaret landed with a small force at 
Weymouth ; but on receiving the news of the defeat at 
Barnet, she hurried to the borders of Wales, where the 
Earl of Pembroke had collected an army in her behalf. 
She was, however, overtaken at Tewkesbury by May 4, 
Edward, and her army defeated. Margaret and 1471 
her son were taken prisoners, and brought to a.d. 



170 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

Edward's tent, where the chief of the Yorkist party 
were assembled. The king insultingly asked the young 
prince how he dared to invade his dominions. The 
high-spirited youth replied that he came to claim his just 
inheritance. On this, Edward cowardly struck him in the 
face with his iron-gloved hand, and he was despatched then 
and there by the daggers of Gloucester and Clarence. The 
king returned in triumph to London, while Margaret was 
thrown into the Tower, where she remained for four years, 
till ransomed by the King of France. A few days after 
the battle of Tewkesbury, Henry VI. died in the Tower. 
The cause of his death is unknown, but it was generally 
believed that the Duke of Gloucester, the king's brother, 
killed him with his own hands. 

There was nothing now to fear from the Lancastrian 
party. Every legitimate prince of that house was dead. 
Edward, then desirous of reconquering the English pos- 
sessions in France, made an alliance with the Duke of 
Burgundy for the invasion of that country. Parliament 
willingly voted him supplies, but as these were considered 
scarcely sufficient for the undertaking, he invented a novel 
plan of raising money. Calling rich subjects before him, 
he demanded presents of money, to which he gave the 
name of Benevolences, or free gifts. When all was ready, 
the king embarked for France, but finding the Duke- of 
Burgundy unable or unwilling to assist him, he gladly 
welcomed a messenger from the French king offering 
terms of peace. At Pecq[lligni, on the Somme, 
1%y>i ' ^^^ *^^*^ monarchs met, and signed a treaty which 
was not honourable to either party. It was 
agreed — 1. That Louis should pay Edward 75,000 
crowns at once, and an annuity of 50,000 crowns. 2. That 
the dauphin should marry Edw^ard's daughter Elizabeth. 
3. That 50,000 crowns should be paid for the ransom of 
Margaret of Anjou. The last clause was the most honour- 
able part of the treaty. By it Margaret gained her free- 
dom ; and having now no child to scheme and fight for, 
she spent the remaining five years of her life in peace and 
privacy. 



EDWARD IV. 171 

Duke of Clarence. Death and Character of Edward. 

The treaty of Pecquigni caused great dissatisfaction in 
England, but Edward removed the ill-feeUng by making 
the expenses of the government press lightly upon the 
pockets of the people. The latter years of his reign were 
stained by the judicial murder of his brother Clarence. 
Edward could not easily forget the treacherous part which 
Clarence had played in conjunction with the ' King- 
Maker.' The queen, too, disliked him; and his brother, the 
Duke of Gloucester, had a quarrel against him. With so 
many powerful foes, he had little chance of escaping the 
plots laid against his Hfe. Unable to curb his temper, on 
account of the execution of several of his friends on the 
most frivolous charges, he complained bitterly of the king's 
persecuting spirit, and drew upon his own head the royal 
vengeance. Edward sent him to the Tower ; the House of 
Peers condemned him to death ; and common rumour said 
he was drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine. (1478.) 

Louis of France, contrary to the treaty of Pecquigni, 
married the dauphin to the grand-daughter of the Duke of 
Burgundy. Edward immediately prepared for war ; but 
in the midst of the preparations his debauchery and wicked 
excesses brought on an illness of which he died, in the 
forty-second year of his age, and was buried at Windsor. 
(1483). 

Edward was a brave, active, and energetic prince, but 
he was also cruel, vain, and given to vicious pleasures. 
His handsome person and open manners made him very 
popular. In later years, however, his wicked indulgences 
disfigured his person, and brought him to an early grave. 

The children by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Richard 
Woodville, were — Edward, who became king ; Richard 
Duke of York ; Elizabeth, who became the wife of Henry 
VII. ; and four other daughters. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 
This reign is remarkable for the introduction of Printing 
into England. William Caxton, an English merchant 



172 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

residing in Holland, having learnt the art there, set up a 
printing press at Westminster. The first book printed in 
England was * The Game and Playe of Chesse,' 1474 ; but 
the first one printed in the English language was called 
* The Recuyell of the Histories of Troye.' This work 
issued from the press at Ghent, imder Caxton's supervision.- 
More than sixty works, nearly all in English, were printed 
at Westminster during the remainder of Caxton's life. 

This important art was introduced into Scotland in 
1508, and into Ireland in 1551. 

Posts were established in this reign between London 
and Scotland. Horsemen were placed twenty miles apart, 
and in this way despatches were conveyed at the rate of 
100 miles a day. This plan was introduced by the Duke 
of Gloucester, while conducting a Scottish war, in 1481. 
England was ravaged by a plague in 1479. St. George's 
Chapel, Windsor, and St. Catherine's Hall, Cambridge, 
date from this reign. Watches were invented by a Ger- 
man, and violins by an Italian. 




Soldier and Hand- gun of the period. 



EDWARD V. 173 



EDWARD V. 

Born 1470 A.D. Eegan to "Reign April 9, 1483 A.D. 
Dethroned June 25, 1483 A.D. 



Edward V,, the eldest son of the late king, was only in his 
twelfth year at the time of his father's death. He was 
then living at Ludlow Castle, under the care of his uncle, 
Earl Kivers, the patron of Caxton. Elvers set out for 
London with his young charge, but at Stoney Stratford he 
was met 1^ Eichard Duke of Gloucester, who had been 
appointed by his brother regent of the kingdom. Sup- 
ported by the enemies of the Woodville party, Eichard im- 
mediately took possession of the young king's person, and 
sent Elvers and his friends as prisoners to Pontefract 
Castle. The queen-mother, on receiving news of this 
violence, took refuge in the sanctuary at Westminster, 
along with all her daughters, and her other son, the 
Duke of York. Gloucester entered London, paying 
mock honours to young Edward, and then sent him 
to the Tower, where he was soon joined by his younger 
brother. The Council, blinded by the Duke's cunning and 
hypocrisy, appointed him Protector of the realm. So far 
successful, his designs upon the crown soon became appa- 
rent. The first step was to get rid of all those who might 
oppose his schemes, and the prisoners in Pontefract there- 
fore were at once put out of the way. Then he began to 
sound the leaders of the Council. The Duke of Buckingham 
promised to help him ; but as Lord Hastings was friendly 
to the young princes, Eichard determined to take his life. 
At a Council meeting in the Tower, the Protector suddenly 
charged that nobleman with conspiring against his life. At a 
given signal, armed men rushed in, hurried Hastings into 
9 



174 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

the courtyard, and there beheaded him on a log of wood. 
Other Councillors, whose fidelity was suspected, were 
placed in confinement. 

The Duke of Gloucester now threw off all disguise. He 
directed one Dr. Shaw, a popular preacher of the day, to 
tell the people of London, in a sermon at St. Paul's Cross, 
that Edward IV. was a married man when he met with 
the Lady Elizabeth Grey, and therefore all her children 
were illegitimate. Two days afterwards, the Duke of 
Buckingham addressed the people at the Guildhall upon 
the same subject. The citizens kept silence, while a bribed 
few in the crowd cried out, ' Long live King Eichard ! ' 
Next day, Buckingham, attended by the Lord Mayor and 
a hireling rabble, waited upon the Protector, and offered 
him the crown, in the name of the nation, which, after a 
little acting and feigned hesitation, he accepted. (June 26, 
1483.) Thus ended Edward's short reign of eleven weeks. 
He was never crowned. 



EICHAED III. 175 



RICHARD III. (Crookback). 
Bom 1450 A.D. Began to Reign 1483 A.D. Died 1485 A.D. 



Murder of the Young Princes. 
Plots against Richard. 
Battle of Bosworth, 



Death and Character of the 

King. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



Murder of the Young" Princes. 

Richard, uncle of Edward V., was crowTied, along with his 
wife Anne, daughter of the Earl of Warwick, at West- 
minster, about a fortnight after his acceptance of the crown. 
His first care was to strengthen his position by lavishing 
favours and honours upon all those who had assisted his 
usurpation. He then made a royal tour through the 
country, and on reaching York he was again crowned. 
During his travels, a tragedy took place in the Tower 
which will for ever stamp this king as one of the vilest 
of mankind. Wishing to make his throne doubly sure, 
Eichard sent Sir James Tyrrell, his master of the horse, fi:om 
Warwick to London, with a letter for Brackenbury, the 
governor of the Tower, charging him to give up the keys 
of the fortress for one night. The order was obeyed. In 
the dead of night, Tyrrell, with three other assassins, 
entered the sleeping-chamber of the innocent princes, 
smothered them with the bed-clothes, and buried their 
bodies at the foot of the stairs, deep down under a heap of 
stones. 

In the year 1674, during some repairs, the bones of two 
youtlis were discovered under a staircase in the White 
Tower, and were buried in Westminster Abbey by order 
of Charles II. as those of Edward V. and his brother the 
Duke of York. 



176 HISTOEY OE ENGLAND. 



Plots against Richard. Battle of Bosworth. 

A throne obtained by violence and bloodshed is sure to 
fall sooner or later. Eichard's crimes sent many a Yorkist 
into the Lancastrian ranks. Even his friend Buckingham 
drew back from his side, and plotted with others to work 
his ruin. Yorkists and Lancastrians secretly banded to- 
gether to overthrow the cruel usurper, and they proposed 
to put an end to their factions by a marriage between the 
rival houses. The only likely person of the Lancaster 
party was Henry, Earl of Eichmond, a descendant on hia 
mother's side of John of Gaunt, by Catherine Swynford; 
on his father's side, he was grandson of Sir Owen Tudor, 
and Catherine, the widow of Henry V. The conspirators 
proposed that he should marry Elizabeth, the eldest 
daughter of Edward IV., and thus unite the rival factions. 
The plot was secretly communicated to the chief persons 
of both houses, and everywhere it was received with the 
greatest joy. The young Earl of Eichmond, who was 
living in exile at the court of Brittany at this time, was 
supplied with funds to raise an army of invasion, while 
Buckingham, depending upon the earl's speedy arrival, 
raised the standard of rebellion in Wales. Heavy rains, 
however, flooded the Severn, swept away the bridges, and 
made the river impassable. Buckingham's followers, 
superstitiously considering the flood as a bad omen, fell 
away from him, and he himself was obliged to take refuge 
in the house of an old servant of the family, who basely 
betrayed him. He was taken to the king at Salisbury, 
and was instantly executed, November 23, 1483. In the 
meantime, the Earl of Eichmond had set sail from St. Malo 
with 5,000 men, but having been beaten back by a storm, 
he arrived on the English coast too late, and found himself 
forced to return to Brittany. 

The failure of this plot strengthened Eichard's position. 
He summoned a Parliament, which acknowledged his 
authority and his right to the throne ; but in order to please 
the people, he passed some popular laws, especially one 



EI CHARD III. 177 

against ' benevolences.' He proposed to marry his own son 
to the Princess Elizabeth, but the sudden death of that 
prince upset his plans. He then thought of marrying her 
himself, and was suspected of getting rid of his wife Anne 
by poison in order to carry out his intention. He was 
dissuaded, however, from this unnatural union, . and was 
advised to await the natural course of events. 

Eichard's proposal of marriage with his niece quickened 
the movements of the Earl of Eichmond. Setting sail from 
Harfleur with a small army of 3,000 men, he landed at 
Milford Haven without opposition. (August 7, 1485 a.d.) 
As he marched through "Wales towards Shrewsbury, his 
force increased to about 6,000. Eichard, not knowing the 
quarter where his enemy might land, had taken up his 
post at Nottingham. His fears were great ; suspicion of the 
fidelity of his friends disturbed his peace ; and his nights 
were sleepless and restless. At Bosworth, in Leicestershire, 
the two armies met to decide the fate of the kingdom. Only 
6,000 men followed Eichmond's banner, while Eichard had 
twice the number. But scarcely had the action begun, when 
Lord Stanley, with 7,000 men, deserted to the side of 
Eichmond, and thus turned the tide of victory in his 
favour. Eichard, seeing at a glance his desperate position, 
and descrying his rival in the battle, rushed forward to 
slay him. Cutting down in his fury all who opposed him, 
he had just reached the earl, when, overpowered by 
superior numbers, he fell sword in hand. His crown was 
found in a hawthorn bush, and placed on the head of the 
victor by Sir William Stanley, amidst the shouts of * Long 
live King Henry ! ' Eichard's body was carelessly thrown, 
like a pack, upon a horse, taken to Leicester, and buried in 
the church of the Grey Friars. 

The battle of Bosworth was the last of the wars Aug. 2, 
of the Eoses, and on that field perished the last of 1485 
the Plantagenet line of kings. a.d. 

The character of Eichard HI. has been variously given. 
He possessed, without doubt, energy, courage, and ability ; 
but his ambition was unbounded, and his craft and cruelty 
beyond description. Some say that he was very much 



178 HISTOEY OF ENaLAOT). 

disfigured in person, small in stature, harsh featured, and 
hunchbacked ; others say that his only defect was in having 
one shoulder a little higher than the other. He left no 
children. 



Miscellaneous Facts. 

In this reign the statutes of Parliament were first drawn 
up in English, and embodied in a printed form. British 
Consuls abroad were appointed for the first time. The 
sweating sickness first made its appearance in England. 
(1484 A.D.) In the wars of the Eoses, which lasted thirty 
years, 100,000 Englishmen are said to have been killed, 
and many villages and churches destroyed. 



LANCASTKIAN AND YOKKIST PEEIOD. 179 



Social Condition of the People in the 
LANCASTRIAN AND YORKIST PERIOD. 



Results of the Wars of the Roses. Food. Dress. 

Dwellings. Aimisements. National Industry. 
Literature. 

Results of the Wars of the Roses. — This quarrel, 
extending over a period of thirty years, was most destructive 
to the nobility. A great number of the aristocracy died on 
the field of battle; many others perished by assassination 
or the executioner, and some were banished. The extent 
of this destruction is shown from the following fact. ' In 
tlie year 1451, Henry VI. summoned fifty- three temporal 
lords to Parliament. The temporal lords summoned by 
Henry YII. to the Parliament of 1485 were only twenty- 
nine, and of these twenty-nine several had recently been 
raised to the peerage.' The consequence of this loss was 
the great increase of the royal power. In the times of the 
Plantagenets the power of the king was kept in check by 
a powerful nobility. There was always at command a 
noble like Robert Fitz Walter, Simon de Montfort, or the 
Earl of Warwick, to head a confederacy against a monarch 
who overstepped the bounds of his authority. But this 
state of things ended with the civil war of the rival houses. 
The victor of Bosworth, in consequence, was the head of a 
line of sovereigns far more despotic than any before them. 
Nevertheless, the wars which destroyed the old English 
nobility were favourable to the growth of the freedom and 
power of the common people. Feudalism received a shock 
from which it never recovered ; and the system of villeinage 
or slavery, which had been decaying ever since the reign 
of Henry II., was entirely overthrown. The Church had 
always used her influence under the Plantagenets in favour 



180 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

of the peasantry. The clergy, drawn from the ranks of 
the people, had the greatest sympathy for them ; and when 
they attended the death-bed of a slaveholder, they did 
not forget to urge him to set free his oppressed fellow- 
creatures. Thus the good work of freedom went on till 
villeinage perished in the civil wars. A new order of 
things began with the close of this period. Modern history, 
Avith its triumphs of civilisation, dates from the battle of 
Bosworth,and the period of the Middle Ages comes to an end. 
The new dynasty began its reign indeed with authority 
hitherto unequalled, but at the same time the spirit of 
freedom infused new life into the people, and gave birth to 
a power which eventually proved a stronger check upon 
the royal authority than that of the ancient nobility. In a 
century and a half from this time, the Commons were more 
than a match for the king. 

Food. — The upper classes increased their number of 
meals from two to four : breakfast at seven, dinner at ten, 
supper at four, and livery (a repast taken in bed) between 
eight and nine. The chief meal was dinner, which 
generally lasted three hours. Then the table in the great 
hall groaned under the weight of dishes of flesh, fish, and 
fowl. The lord sat at the head of the table, on a dais, and 
below him were his friends and retainers, all placed accord- 
ing to their rank. The salt-cellar was the boundary line 
between servants and guests. Food was eaten with the 
fingers, in primitive fashion, and numerous servants handed 
round in vessels of wood, pewter, or horn, plenty of wine, 
beer, and ale. The long hours of dinner were enlivened 
with the music of some strolling minstrel, and the tricks of 
jugglers and buiFoons. 

Hospitality was as splendid as in the former period. The 
custom of keeping armed retainers rendered an open table 
necessary. The ' King-Maker,' for instance, maintained in 
his various castles 30,000 men, and therefore we need 
not be surprised when we read of the magnitude of the 
feasts of those days. When the same nobleman's brother 
was made Archbishop of York, his feast consisted of 
104 oxen, 6 wild bulls, 1,000 sheep, 304 calves, 2,000 pigs, 



LANCASTRIAN AND YOEKIST PERIOD. l8l 

500 stags, 204 kids, and 22,512 fowls and birds. Besides • 
these, there was abundance of fish, pastry, &c. ; and of 
drinks, there were used 300 tuns of ale, and 100 tuns of 
wine. In the house of the Earl of "Warwick, in London, 
six oxen were consumed by his retainers every morning for 
breakfast. 

The labouring classes breakfasted at eight, dined at noon, 
and supped at six. They were well fed, and never drank 
water, except as a penance. During the civil war, the 
peasantry in some parts suffered much from scarcity of 
food. 

Dress. — The extravagant style of dress introduced in 
the reign of Kichard II. kept its ground during the short 
reigns of Henry IV. and Henry Y. Fashion made great 
changes under Henry VI. Males cropped their hair short, 
and closely shaved their face. They wore hoods with long 
tippets, reaching to the ground ; high caps, with single 
feathers behind ; a jacket or doublet, with high-padded 
shoulders, and large sleeves shaped like a bagpipe; and 
shoes w;ith long pointed toes, as before. In the time of 
Edward IV., the practice of slitting the doublet at the 
elbow, so as to show the shirt, came into fashion, and 
became very general in the following century. The hair 
was now worn in thick masses, even reaching to the eyes, 
and the long-pointed shoe gave place to broad toes, some- 
times more than six inches wide; but this style of shoe did 
not long continue in use. 

The most remarkable change in the dress of ladies was 
the style of headdress. At the beginning of the period, 
we find it in the shape of a turban, or a heart, or 
two horns, but these fashions were succeeded by a tall 
steeple cap, as high as a chimney pot, from which hung a 
piece of fine lawn reaching to the ground. The peasantry 
of Normandy still wear a headdress resembling this.^ 
They also wore richly- embroidered gowns, trimmed with 
fur or velvet, with short waists and long trains. 

^ The high steeple cap disappeared about the close of the reign of 
Edward IV. 



182 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

The display in dress of the upper classes was copied by 
those below them to such an extent that laws were passed 
under Edward IV. forbidding working people to buy 
articles of clothing above a certain value, and limiting the 
fashion of their dress. Labourers' wives were forbidden to 
wear ' a girdle garnished with silver,' or to buy ' cloth 
above the price of 25. the broad yard.' Such laws show that 
the working classes were increasing in wealth. Similar 
enactments were also made to regulate the style, quality, 
and colour of dress of all persons below the rank of lord. 

Dwellings. — The buildings erected in this period were 
not so military-looking as before, and they had about them 
a greater air of comfort. The larger dwellings were castel- 
lated mansions built in the quadrangular form, enclosing 
an open space, called the court, into which the chief apart- 
ments looked. Smaller abodes were called manor houses, 
and they were also quadrangular, and surrounded, like 
the castellated mansion, with a moat. Farm-houses and 
cottages were still rude structures of wattles and clay. 
Cottages generally consisted of a single room. Chimneys 
were unknown in such dwellings till the time of Elizabeth. 
Town houses were built of wood ; and in order to keep the 
beams and posts from rotting with damp, the upper stories 
jutted out over the lower, and in narrow streets the top 
stories of opposite houses reached within a few feet of each 
other. This style of house may still be seen in York and 
Chester. Wood was the chief material used in building, but 
stone was partially used for high-class dwellings, and bricks, 
introduced from Flanders, began to be much employed. 

The gentry still lacked comfortable apartments. Furni- 
ture was poor and scanty. Beds were rare ; and a gentle- 
man with three or four was considered to be excellently pro-' 
vided; few had more than two. The walls were commonly 
bare, without wainscot or even plaster ; but the houses of 
the great were furnished with hangings or tapestry, called 
Arras, from the place of its manufacture. Some of the 
rooms were supplied with chimneys ; and the chimney-piece 
of the chief chamber was usually ornamented with a dis- 
play of shields and devices. Glazed windows in domestic 



LANCASTEIAK AND YOEKIST PERIOD. 183 

buildings were only found in the houses of the great, and 
were very dear. They were considered as moveable 
furniture. 

Amusements. — The sports of the gentry continued the 
same as before, with one or two exceptions. The tourna- 
ment was rapidly declining into idle parade, and a mere 
display of horsemanship. The out-door amusements of 
the poor were little altered. Wrestling, bowling, and 
games of ball were particularly popular. The sports of 
children were much the same as at present. Edward IV. 
renewed the law for the encouragement of archery ; and as 
this practice was much neglected, the magistrates were 
ordered to prevent the games of dice, cards, bowls, 
quoits, tennis, &c. Playing-cards came into use in this 
period. 

Mummings were frequent at the court ; and persons of 
all ranks took part in these amusements, in which all kinds 
of animals were sometimes represented. The grand .pro- 
cessions or pageants, with which the citizens of London 
occasionally welcomed the king, were chiefly mummings on 
a large scale. 

Within doors, secular and religious plays were the 
chief amusements. The former were only stories made 
up for the occasion by travelling buffoons, and acted in 
the kitchens of inns or the corners of streets. The re- 
ligious plays were called Mysteries, or Miracle Plays, 
and, for the most part, were representations of Scripture 
history, arranged and acted by the clergy. They were 
first performed in churches, and were intended to teach the 
people sacred history. In 1409, a performance of this 
kind in London occupied eight days, and was attended 
by most of the nobility and gentry. The stage, at first, 
consisted of three platforms, of different heights. The 
actors took their place on the lowest, whilst the other two 
were occupied by representations of saints, angels, and the 
Supreme Being. In time these profane representations 
were discontinued. About the time of Henry YL, Moral 
Plays, or Allegories, came into use. There were persona- 
tions of moral qualities, as Truth, Justice, Mercy, &c., 



184 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

Avhicli were acted by laymen. In the Tudor period, Moral 
Plays gave way to the regular English drama. 

National Industry. — Before the commencement of the 
civil war, the commerce of England was rapidly increasing. 
Wool was still the chief staple of trade, and was exported 
in the raw state to Flanders, and imported thence as cloth. 
Trade was also carried on with Spain, Portugal, Genoa, 
Florence, and Venice. Ships went to Iceland from Bristol 
and Scarborough for codfish. We learn something of the 
importance and growth of commerce from the fact that 
several traders rose to high rank and power. The De la 
Poles, to which family the Duke of Suffolk belonged, were 
merchants of Hull. The Cannings of Bristol and Whitting- 
ton of London were men of mark in their day. The vari- 
ous crafts were called 'mysteries;' and most of them were 
formed into guilds or corporations, for mutual encourage- 
ment and protection. Silk-weaving was carried on by 
women in London, but it was not very flourishing. 

The wars of the Koses not only injured for a time the 
foreign trade, but also interfered with the cultivation of the 
soil. Labourers became scarce, and the villeins who were 
set free betook themselves to handicrafts and manufactures. 
These facts, along with the increasing demand for wool, 
caused a great deal of arable land to be turned into 
pasture. 

The scarcity of labourers led the Parliament, in 14.45, to 
fix the rate of wages for several classes by law. A common 
husbandman was not to receive more per year than 155., 
with meat and drink, and 40c/. for clothing; most labourers 
were to receive 2d, a day with, or 3^d. without, diet in sum- 
mer, and ^d. a day less in winter. A free mason and 
master carpenter were not to receive more than 4c?. a day 
with, or 5^cZ. without, diet in summer, and Id. less in 
winter. Those who refused to agree to these terms were 
liable to be sent to prison. 

The population at the close of the fifteenth century was 
about 3,000,000. 

Literature, &c. — On account of the wars in France and 
at home, this period is very barren of any great names in 



LANCASTRIAN AND YOEKIST PERIOD. 185 

literature. The love of knowledge, however, was very 
deep in many of the more select order of minds, and their 
desire for its advancement is shown by the establishment 
of several colleges, both at Oxford and Cambridge. The 
invention of printing and its ' introduction into England 
worked a complete change in the art of book-making. 
Manuscripts gave way to printed volumes. The type used 
at first in England was Old English ; and the spelling of 
■words was left to the taste of the author. The language of 
the time was Middle English. 

The chief authors of the period (1399-1485) were: — 

THOMAS WALSINGHAM, a monk of St. Albans : wrote in 
Latin a history of England from 1273 to 1422. 

JOHN LYDGATE (1375-1461), a monk of Bury St. Edmund's: 
wrote about 250 poems : of which the chief were ' The Siege of 
Troy,' ' The Fall of Princes,' and ' The History of Thebes.' 

SIE JOHN FORTESCUE (1395-1485), Chief Justice: wrote a 
book on the laws of England, and other works in Latin. 

WILLIAM CAXTON (1410-1491), first English printer : wrote 
and printed about sixty works. 

JAMES I. King of Scotland ; a prisoner for nineteen years in 
England, became acquainted with the writings of Chaucer; 
author of a poem called ' The King's Quhair ' (or Book). 



LEADING DATES OF THE PERIOD (1399-1485). 

GENERAL EVENTS. 

Glendower's Revolt .... 1400 a.d. Henry IV. 
William Sawtre burnt for Heresy . 1401 „ „ 

Execution of Scrope, Archbishop of 

York 1405 „ „ 

London lighted for the first time 

with Lanterns .... 
Release of Prince James of Scotland . 
Execution of Joan of Arc . 
Printing in Wooden Blocks commenced 

by Coster 

Metal Types used by Guttenburg 
First Book Printed in England . 



1415 


>i 


Henry V, 


1423 


>> 


Henry VI. 


1431 


>> 


» 


1431 


« 


» 


1444 


>f 


» 


1474 


>) 


Edward IV. 



186 



HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 



WARS, BATTLES, AND TREATIES. 

A.D. 



Battle of Nesbit Moor 


. 1402 . 


Heney IV. 


,, Homildon Hill 


. 1402 


>» 


,, Shrewsbury . 


. 1403 


» 


,, Agincourt 


. 1415 . 


Henrt V. 


Siege of Rouen . 


. 1419 


3* 


Treaty of Troyes . 


. 1420 


»> 


Battle of Crevant 


. 1423 . 


Henby VI. 


,, Verneuil 


. 1424 


» 



,, Rouvrai, or Battle of Herrings 1429 
Siege of Orleans raised by Joan of Arc 1429 
Jack Cade's Rebellion . . . . 1450 
The English Driven out of France , 1451 
Treaty of Pecquigni .... 1475 



Edwaed IV. 



WARS OF THE ROSES. 1455 A.D. TO 1485 A.D. 



Twelve Battles. 



Kings. 


Places. 
St. Albans (first) . 


Dates. A.D. 
May 22, 1455 


Victors. 
. York. 




Bloreheath . 


Sept. 23, 1459 


j» 


HENRY VI. ( 


Northampton 
Wakefield . 


July 10, 1460 
Dec. 31, 1460 


5J 

Lancaster 




Mortimer's Cross . 


Feb. 2, 1461 


. York. 




^St. Albans (second) 


Feb. 17, 1461 


Lancaster 




( Towton 


Mar. 29, 1461 


. York. 




Hedgeley Moor , 


April 25, 1464 


>> 


EDWARD IV. ( 


Hexham 


May 15, 1464 


>, 




Barnet 


April 14, 1471 


» 




Tewkesbury 


May 4, 1471 


5J 


RICHARD III. 


Boswortli 


Aug. 22, 1485 . 


Lancaster. 



GENEALOaiCAL TAELE 
Connecting tlie Flantagenets with tlie Tndors. 



EDWARD III. 



John of Ghent, Duke of Lancaster (fourth son), had by 
I Catherine Swynford (his mistress) — 

John Beatjtobt, Earl of Somerset: died 1410 a.d. 
I 
John Duke of Somerset: died 1444:. 

Maegaeet Beatjfoet, m. Edmund Earl of Eichmond, son of 
I Catherine, widow of Henry V., and Owen Tudor. 

HENRY VII. 



188 HISTOEY OF ENQLAND. 



TUDOB PERIOD, 

From 1485 A.D. to 1603 A.D. 118 Years. 

HENRY VII. . . . began to Reign 1485 A.D. 

HENRY VIII. (Son) . . „ „ 1509 „ 

EDWARD VI. (Son) . „ „ 1547 „ 

MARY (Half-sister) . . „ „ 1553 „ 

ELIZABETH (Half-sister) 1558 „ 



HENRY VII. 
Born 1456 A.D. Began to Reign 1485 A.D. Died 1509 A.D. 



Henry's Accession and Title. 
Lambert Simnel's Insurrection. 
War in France. 
Perkin Warbeck's Insurrection. 



Eoyal Marriages. 
Henry's Avarice. 
Death and Character. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



Henry's Accession and Title to the Crown. 

Modern History begins with the accession of Henry VII. 
The spread of knowledge through the invention of printing 
caused an astonishing progress in manners, literature, and 
arts ; and the peace which followed the civil war gave a 
favourable opportunity for the first growth of those political, 
social, and religious ideas which have raised England to 
the foremost place amongst the nations of the earth. 

On the field of Bosworth Henry VII. was hailed as king 
by all his friends. He was now in his thirtieth year. He 
had no real title to the crown, for his descent from John 
of Gaunt, through his mother Margaret, daughter of John 
Beaufort, the Duke of Somerset, was illegitimate. It is 
true that John of Gaunt's children by Catherine Swyn- 
ford were legitimatised by Act of Parliament, in the reign 
of Richard II., but with the provision that they should 
be excluded from the throne. The lawful heir to the 
crown by descent was Edward Earl of Warwick, son of 
George Duke of Clarence, then a boy of fifteen years 



HENEY VII. 189 

of age, living at Sheriff-Hutton, in Yorkshire. Henry 
immediately got possession of his young rival's person, 
and sent him to the Tower. He intended to claim the 
crown by right of conquest, but friends and foes objected 
to that course. His third claim was based upon his pro- 
posed marriage with Elizabeth of York, daughter of 
Edward IV., and, much as he disliked the idea, it was the 
only claim of real value, and one calculated to unite the 
two factions of York and Lancaster. In consideration of 
his intended marriage, Parliament agreed that the crown of 
England should rest and abide with him and his heirs ; but 
his coronation took place at Westminster some time before 
the marriage. (October 30, 1485.) He immediately chose 
for his advisers two clergymen, named John Morton and 
Richard Fox, who had shared his dangers. Fox was made 
Bishop of Exeter, and Morton became Archbishop of Can- 
terbury. Early in 1486 Henry married Elizabeth. The 
marriage was received with greater joy than the king's 
first entry into the City, or his coronation. Disquieted at 
this show of Yorkist feeling, Henry in the same year ob- 
tained from Pope Innocent VIII. a confirmation of his title 
to the crown. 

Lambert Simners Insurrection. 

Henry could not conceal his dislike to the Yorkists. 
The general favour with which they were regarded made 
him very jealous. He consequently treated them with 
coldness and indifierence, and thus re-kindled the feelings 
of ill-will and hatred between the old factions of the White 
and Eed Eoses. While the king was on a tour in York- 
shire, Lord Lovel and other Yorkist noblemen suddenly 
raised an insurrection in the neighbourhood of Ripon. The 
rising, however, failed ; and Lovel escaped to Flanders to 
Margaret, Dowager-duchess of Burgundy, the sister of 
Edward IV., where, throughout this reign, help and an 
asylum were found for all the friends of the House of 
York. The elder Stafford, who had joifTed Level's insur- 
rection, was taken and executed. 



190 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

In the same year, a formidable attempt was made to over- 
throw the king's government. It has already been stated 
that the heir of the house of York, the young Earl of 
Warwick, was a prisoner in the Tower. An Oxford priest, 
named Simon, formed the design of getting some one to 
personate this nobleman, and thus present a rallying point 
for the enemies of the Lancastrians. In the same city a 
ready tool was found in Lambert Simnel, a baker's son, 
fifteen years of age. The priest, after well drilling the 
youth, took him to Dublin, and introduced him as the 
young Earl of Warwick just escaped from the Tower. As 
Eichard Duke of York and his son George Duke of 
Clarence had been lieutenants of Ireland, the Yorkists 
were very popular there, and the story of the escape 
of the heir of that family was received with the greatest 
joy. The deputy of the island, the Earl of Kildare, received 
Simnel with all respect, and the people in Dublin, 
-iJqJ with one consent, proclaimed him as Edward VI. 
Henry, alarmed at the movement, paraded the real 
Earl of Warwick through the streets of London, 
and, by the advice of his peers and prelates, proclaimed a 
general pardon for all past offences. The widow of 
Edward IV., however, was dispossessed of her lands, and 
sent for safe custody to the nunnery of Bermondsey. In 
England these measures took effect ; but in Ireland 
Simnel's imposture was daily gathering strength. John 
Earl of Lincoln, son of the Duke of Suffolk and 
Elizabeth, eldest sister of Edward IV., fled to his aunt, the 
Duchess of Burgundy, and persuaded her to help the plot 
in Ireland. She sent 2,000 mercenaries to Dublin along 
with him and Level ; and there it was decided to invade 
England. Henry was with his army at Kenil worth Castle, 
when news reached him that his enemies had landed at 
Furness, Lancashire, and were marching into the 
1 dS7 ' ^^^^^ ^^ *^^ kingdom. At Stoke, near Newark, 
the royal forces intercepted the rebels. The battle 
was fought with the greatest obstinacy and valour 
on both sides, but^t last the victory, at one time doubtful, 
fell to Henry, Earl Lincoln and 4,000 of his followers 



HENEY VII. ♦ 191 

perished on the field. Lovel escaped, but was never more 
heard of. Simnel and his tutor were taken prisoners. The 
priest was closely confined in prison ; but Simnel, being 
too contemptible for the royal anger, was made a scullion 
in the king's kitchen, and afterwards advanced to the post 
of falconer. 

This insurrection reminded Henry of the necessity of 
conciliating the Yorkists. The queen, though married 
two years, had not yet been crowned, much to the dis- 
appointment of the people. Her coronation now took 
place with great pomp and magnificence, and on all public 
occasions afterwards she occupied a prominent place. 

War with France. 

Henry's cautious and parsimonious character was 
favourable for the maintenance of peace, but events were 
taking place in France which demanded his interference, 
in spite of his dislike of war. Brittany was the only great 
fief of France which retained its independence. Charles VIII., 
the French king, being desirous of adding this duchy to the 
crown, took advantage of some discontent in the province, 
and invaded it. (1488.) The aged duke, who had sheltered 
Henry VII. in his exile, appealed to England for help. A 
smaU force of 6,000 men was sent across, but it proved of 
little use. Just at that time the Duke of Brittany died, 
leaving the duchy to his daughter Anne, a girl twelve years 
old. This young heiress had been betrothed to Maximilian 
King of the Eomans, with the approval of Henry ; but the 
French monarch upset the arrangement. Surrounding the 
town of Eennes, where the duchess resided, with a large 
army, Charles said that she must either be his wife or his 
prisoner. She chose the former fate ; and thus Brittany 
was finally united to the French crown. (1491 a.d.) 

Henry was very much annoyed at this marriage, and 
threatened war with Cliarles. The English people strongly 
advocated the invasion of France, and were loud in their 
outcries against the French king's conduct ; but Henry pre- 
ferred to fill his coff"eTs with the money voted by Parliament 



192 HtSTORY 0"F ENGLAND. 

rather than to spend it in arms. Public opinion at last pre- 
vailed, and the king, after illegally levying a benevolence^ set 
out for France with a large army, as if bent upon the con- 
quest of that country. He pretended to besiege Boulogne ; 
but the French knew that money would satisfy his wounded 
pride and anger. A treaty of peace was immediately drawn 
1AQ0 ^^P ^* Estaples, by which it was agreed that 
Henry should receive 149,000/., on condition of 
withdrawing his forces. The peace gave great 
dissatisfaction in England. The people were loud in their 
complaints that the king had exacted money from them 
merely for the sake of getting more from his enemies. 

Perkin Warbeck's Insurrection. 

While the dispute was going on with. France, another 
impostor appeared on the scene to disquiet Henry's reign. 
It had long been noised abroad that Eichard Duke of 
York, the brother of Edward V., had escaped from the 
Tower. The enemies of the king, taking advantage of this 
rumour, brought forward a youth named Perkin Warbeck, 
son of a merchant of Tournay, as the real Duke of York. 
He landed at Cork, where he was enthusiastically received 
as Richard Plantagenet. There was then open war between 
England and France, and Charles YIH. invited the impostor 
to Paris, for the purpose of frightening his adversary. After 
the peace of Estaples, Warbeck found an asylum with Mar- 
garet of Burgundy, who, professing to believe that he was 
her nephew, called him the White Rose of England, and 
treated him as a prince. A Yorkish plot was at once set 
on foot in England. For nearly three years an active 
correspondence went on between the Yorkist leaders and 
the court of Burgundy. The belief gained ground that 
the Duke of York was really alive, and Henry became 
seriously alarmed. Numerous spies in England and Flan- 
ders kept him well informed of the extent of the conspiracy, 
and at first he wisely tried to defeat it by gentle means. 
Sir Robert CliiFord, one of the conspirators, was persuaded 
to abandon the plot, and pardon was freely offered to those 



HENEY TIL 193 

who would follow his example. By means of GiScrtd, ms^etsX 
of Warbeck's supporters in England were disoorered, and 
executed for high treascm. Amonggt diese was 1^ 
William Stanley, the lord chamberiain, who had eared the 
king's life at Bosworth. He had said in oonfidaice to 
Clifford that, if he were sore die joong man in Flanders 
was really the son of King Edward, he nerer would bear 
arms against him. 

The execution of Stanley and others pot soch a chedc 
upon Ae conspiracy, that Pezkin was obliged to do h<. ..e- 
thing in order to keep np his party. An attempt to L 
Kent fe.ile<i ; his followers were beaten back with Idh^^^ —- 
many were captored and executed. (149.5 a-D.) "Warbedc 
then made for Ireland, and attempted to take WaterSird ; 
but tKe deputy of the island. Sir Edward Pojnings, had 
so improTed the goTemment that he found little sap- 
port there, and was compelled to withdraw to Flanders. 
Under this deputy, a law was made and called by his 
name, Poyuing's Law, which enacted that no Bill could be 
introduced into the Irish Parliam0[it unless it had pre- 
rioudy received the approval of the. English CounciL This 
statute greatly strengthened Henry's power in Ireland. 

Warbeck was obliged to leave Flanders, becau^ Henry, 
in rerenge, had remored the EnglisJi clolh-mazkefc from 
Antwerp to Calais, and had banished the Flemish mer- 
chants :&om England. To put an end to this interrupticm 
<rf trade, ]MaTgaret of Burgundy was om^lled to part 
with her prot^e. (1496 aj>.) - Once more he visited Coik; 
biit filing to excite the people in his ^vour, he set sail for 
Scotland, where James lY. received him wiA all re^iecL 
The Scotti^ Vingr gave him in marriage a lady of royal 
blood, Catherine Gordon, dau^ter of the Earl of Huntley, 
and led an expedition in his bdialf into the ^ -q** 
northern counties of England. No Englishman, , . 
Viowever, welcomed the invader ; and after ravag- 
ing the country, the Scots withdrew. This aggre^on 
2^ave Henry an excuse for demanding fitmi his subjects & 
supply of money. The Parliament voted a grant ; but die 
men of Cornwall refused to pay their dbure, as an unne- 



194 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

cessary and unjust demand. They therefore took up arms, 
and marched towards London. Lord Audley, and others of 
lower rank, joined them on the way, but at Blackheath 
they were suddenly attacked in front and rear by the 
royal forces, and thoroughly discomfited. Their leaders 
were taken and executed. 

In the meantime the Scots made another inroad into 
the northern counties, but an English force compelled 
them to withdraw and sue for peace. Warbeck, again 
losing an asylum, went to Ireland, and thence to Cornwall. 
Landing at Whitsand Bay, near Penzance, he marched to 
Bodmin, where 3,000 men gathered round his banner, and 
hailed him as King Eichard IV. At the head of 6,000 
men, he laid siege to Exeter ; but on the approach of the 
royal troops, he withdrew to Taunton. Despairing of suc- 
cess, he took refuge in the sanctuary of Beaulieu, Hamp- 
shire, whilst his followers threw themselves upon the king's 
mercy. A few were hanged, others fined, and the rest 
sent home. Warbeck surrendered on a promise of life, 
and was carried in mock triumph to London, where a con- 
fession of the imposture was published, to satisfy the 
people. Warbeck was kept in honourable confinement, 
and his wife was made an attendant upon the queen. On 
attempting to escape from England, he was put into the 
stocks, and afterwards sent to the Tower. There he came 
in contact with the son of the Duke of Clarence. The two 
prisoners soon became friends, and plotted to escape from 
captivity. Their plan being discovered, Warbeck was 
hanged at Tyburn, and the Earl of Warwick, the last heir 

of the Plantagenets, after suiFering an unjust 
°^" ' imprisonment of fifteen years, was beheaded on 

Tower Hill. This last act is a lastinoj blot on 

A.D. . . 

the character of Henry YII. A third imposture, 
set on foot just before, made him anxious to get rid of the 
earl. A priest in Kent had induced a shoemaker's son to 
call himself the Earl of Warwick. The puppet was exe- 
cuted, and the priest imprisoned for life. This plot no doubt 
had some influence in determining the fate of the unfortu- 
nate heir of the Plantagenets. 



HEKEY Vn. 195 

Royal Marriages. Henry's Avarice. Death and 
Character. 

Insurrections having come to an end, Henry devoted hia 
attention to the marriaore of his children and amassing: 

o o 

money. Three marriages took place, -which produced im- 
portant consequences. The first was that of Prince Arthur, 
eldest son of the king, to Catherine of Arragon, Novem- 
ber 1501. In six months the prince died, at the age of 
fifteen. Henry, anxious to keep the Spanish alliance, and 
unwilling to lose Catherine's dowry of 200,000 ducats, 
betrothed the princess, by the Pope's permission, to his 
second son, Henry, then a boy eleven years of age. This 
Txnion gave rise to an important dispute in the next reign. 
In the following year, the king's eldest daughter, Mar- 
garet, married James IV. of Scotland. This - ^- _ 
match ultimately led to the union of the crowns 

. A.D. 

of England and Scotland. In the midst of all 

these arrangements, Henry's queen died, much regretted 

by the nation. 

Henry's avarice seems to have increased with peace and 
prosperity. The love of money grew with his age, and he 
neglected no opportunity of imposing heavy fines upon his 
subjects for breaches of the law. His advisers in this 
matter were two lawyers, Empson and Dudley, whom he 
made barons of the Exchequer. Many laws had fallen 
into disuse, but spies, scattered throughout the country, 
reported the names of all persons who neglected to observe 
them, and these lawyers then pitilessly exacted the fines 
from men of all ranks and conditions. On one occasion, 
the Earl of Oxford entertained the king at his castle, and 
assembled a large number of retainers in livery to do him 
honour. The king, on his departure, reminded the earl of 
a law recently made against keeping retainers, and the hos- 
pitable nobleman was fined 10,000Z. By these exactions, 
Henry is said to have amassed l,800,000Z.-^a fabulous 
sum for those days. 

Henry died of consumption at his favourite palace of 



196 HISTOEY OF ENG-LAlltD. 

Shene, near Richmond, and was buried in the beauti- 
ful chapel which he had built in Westminster 
F^^xQ ' Abbey. During his illness, the memory of his 
deeds of wrong troubled his peace of mind, and 
he ordered in his will that compensation should 
be made to those whom he had injured. He was a man of 
ability and courage ; but avarice, on the whole, was his 
ruling passion. His reign was favourable to the growth of 
English interests, both at home and abroad. Many useful 
laws were passed; the power of the nobility was restrained; 
order was preserved in the State ; and the foundation of 
our commerce was laid. 

The children of Henry by his wife Elizabeth of York 
were : Arthur, who married Catherine of Arragon, and 
died 1502 a.d. ; Henry, who became king ; Margaret, 
married James IV. of Scotland ; and Mary, married (1) 
Louis XII. of France, and (2) Charles Brandon, Duke of 
Suffolk. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

An important law was passed in this reign, called the 
Statute of Fines, which enabled the nobility to dispose of 
their estates without paying the usual fines. By this law 
many estates were bought by rich commoners ; and thus a 
new class of gentry took its rise. The power of the nobility 
was also restrained by the law for the abolition of main- 
tenance. By ' maintenance ' is understood the right of 
the nobility to keep in their pay any number of men. Before 
this statute was passed, some of the nobles kept thousands 
of armed men in their service. 

The Court of the Star Chamber was re-modelled by 
Parliament in 1486. It was originally the king's ordinary 
council, and received the name of * Star Chamber ' from 
the decorations of the room in the palace where it was 
held. It took cognisance of offences by maintenance, riot, 
unlawful assemblies, perjury, forgery, and offences which 
could not well be brought under the law. In this court, 
trials were conducted without juries, and there was no 
appeal from its decisions. It had not the power of life and 



HENRY VII. 197 

death, but could fine men to their ruin. In succeeding 
reigns, it became an instrument of injustice and tyranny. 

Henry's reign is remarkable for the success of maritime 
discovery. Christopher Columbiis, a Genoese, discovered 
the Bahama Islands in 1492 ; and it was merely by accident 
that Henry was deprived of the opportunity of taking part 
in this expedition. Columbus had sent his brother Bartho- 
lomew to England in 1489, with maps and charts, for the 
purpose of obtaining the king's help for his intended 
voyage. He was favourably received, but on his return 
to invite his brother to the English court, he was taken 




Costume of the Nobility— time of Henry VII. 

by pirates. Columbus in the meantime had secured 
the aid of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and with a 
small Spanish fleet set out on a great voyage of discovery. 
Henry afterwards patronised Sebastian Cabot, a Venetian, 
settled in Bristol, who was the first to explore the main- 
land of North America from Newfoundland to Florida. 
(1497 A.D.) In the same year, a Portuguese, named Vasco 
de Gama, doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and thus 
10 



198 HISTOEY OF ENQLAND. 

opened out a new way to the East Indies. Americus 
Vespuccius, a native of Florence, explored the coasts of 
South America, and gave his name to the New World. 

Henry caused a war-ship of two decks to be built, 
which carried 1,000 tons, cost 14,000/., and was called the 
Great Harry. He also instituted a body-guard of fifty 
men, known as Yeomen of the Guard. From their duty 
of attending the buffet or royal sideboard, they were called 
buffetters, since corrupted into beef-eaters. To this reign 
we owe the issue of shilling pieces, and the founding of 
Jesus College and Christ's College, Cambridge, and 
Rrasenose, Oxford. 



H-ENKY Vin. 



199 



HENRY VIII. 
Born 1491 A.D. Began to Reign 1509 A.D. Died 1547 A.D. 



Henry's Accession. 

First War with France and Scot- 
land. 

Cardinal "Wolsey. 

Field of the Cloth of Gold. 

Second War with France and 
Scotland. 

The Reformation. 

Divorce of Queen Catherine. 

Wolsey's Fall. 

Overtlirow of the Papal Power 
in England. 

Suppression of the Monasteries. 



Anne Boleyn. 

Jane Seymour. 

Translation of the Bible. 

The Bloody Statute. 

Anne of Cleves. 

Catherine Howard. 

Catherine Parr. 

Third War with France and 

Scotland. 
Execution of the Earl of Surrey. 
Death and Character of the 

King. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



Henry's Accession. 



First War with France and 
Scotland. 



Henry VIII. was born at Greenwich, and was eighteen 
years old when he came to the throne. Uniting in his 
person the rival claims of the houses of York and Lan- 
caster, the nation hailed his accession with pleasure, and 
looked forward to a reign of peace and good government. 
The young king's handsome person, jovial manners, 
cheerful disposition, and many accomplishments, made 
him very popular ; and he had, besides, in the hoards of 
his father, the means wherewith to win popular favour. 
Soon after his accession, he married Catherine, his brother's 
widow. The cares of government sat lightly upon him, so 
that the first two years of his reign were devoted to plea- 
sure rather than business. Tilts, tournaments, dances, 
pageants, and all kinds of pleasures were indulged in, one 



200 HISTOEY 0¥ ENGLAND. 

after the other, till little was left of the great treasures 
which Henry VII. had been so careful to collect. The 
affairs of government were left in the hands of the king's 
chief ministers, the Earl of Surrey, afterwards made Duke of 
Norfolk, and Fox, Bishop of Winchester. One of the first 
acts of the reign was the imprisonment of Empson and 
Dudley, and the numerous informers whom they had main- 
tained throughout the land. The people clamoured for 
the punishment of the two chief agents of the last Hugh's 
tyranny, and to gratify the popular cry, a trumped-up 
charge of treason was brought against them, and they were 
executed on Tower Hill. 

After two or three years' peace, Henry was persuaded 
by his father-in-law Ferdinand to join in a war against 
France. Pope Julius II., Ferdinand of Spain, and Maxi- 
milian of Germany, had entered into a league, in 1508, 
called the League of Cambray, to recover some Church 
lands from the Venetians. Succeeding in this, the same 
powers formed another league, which the Venetians joined, 
for the purpose of driving the French out of Italy. Henry 
was invited to join them, and at the same time to de- 
mand from Louis XII. of France the surrender of the 
province of Guienne. Full of youthful ai'dour, and thirst- 

. _- ^ ing for military glory, Henry declared war against 

Louis. An army under the Marquis of Dorset 

was sent to Spain to invade the south of France, 

but Ferdinand used it to conquer Navarre for himself. 

Dorset, finding himself duped, returned to England with 

his forces much reduced. 

In the following year, Henry, having received a liberal 
grant of money, set sail for Calais at the head of 25,000 
men. There he was joined by Maximilian, who consented 
to serve under the English king as one of his captains. 
The small town of Terouenne, in Picardy, was besieged for 
two months, during which time a battle disgraceful to the 
French arms took place. A body of French cavalry, to 
the number of 10,000, marching to relieve Terouenne, was 
attacked by a few hundred English and German horse 
at Guinegate. The French were put to the rout, and, 



HENRY VIII. 201 

because they used their spurs more than theii: swords, 
the action was called the Battle of Spurs. After 
the surrender of Terouenne, Tournay was taken, 1513 
and, as winter was coming on, Henry returned a.d. 
with most of his army in triumph to England. 

Whilst these things were taking place in France, James IV. 
of Scotland, as an ally of the French, invaded England. On 
Flodden Field, at the foot of the Cheviots, an English army 
under Earl Surrey inflicted upon the Scots a ^eio 
terrible defeat. James IV. and the flower of the 

A.D 

Scotch nobility were slain. Surrey was rewarded 
for this brilliant victory with the title of Duke of Norfolk. 
In the following year, Henry, deserted by his allies, 
made peace with France. Louis agreed that the English 
should keep Tournay, that he would pay Henry 1,000,000 
crowns, and that he would marry Mary, Henry's sister. 
Three months after the marriage, Louis died ; and his 
young widow afterwards became the wife of Charles 
Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. 

Cardinal Wolsey. Field of the Cloth of Gold. 

One of Henry's chief advisers at this time was Thomas 
Wolsey, Dean of Lincoln. He is said to have been a 
butcher's son, and was born at Ipswich, 1471 a.d. But 
whatever his origin was, his talents were of a very high 
order. He was educated at Magdalene College, Oxford, 
where he took his Bachelor of Arts degree at the age 
of fourteen, and was on this account called the Boy 
Bachelor. After discharging the duties of tutor to the 
sons of the Marquis of Dorset, he was appointed by that 
nobleman to the rectory of Lymington, Hampshire. He 
next received the chaplaincy of Calais. His talents 
attracted the attention of Henry VIL, who rewarded him 
for secret services by advancing him to the deanery of 
Lincoln, and the post of king's almoner. Fox, Bishop of 
Winchester, introduced him to the court of Henry VIII., 
where his efforts to please soon won the royal favour. 
Wolsey's preferment was now rapid. At first the com- 
panion of the king's pleasures, he was next made a member 



202 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

of liis council, and in a short time became his sole 
minister. Henry, delighted with a counsellor who seemed 
to second all his whims and pleasures, made him Arch- 
bishop of York and Chancellor of England. Pope Leo X. 
raised him to the dignity of cardinal in 1515 ; and three 
years later, he was created papal legate. His magnificence 
and splendour knew no bounds. His train consisted of 800 
servants, of whom many were knights and gentlemen. His 
dresses, the trappings of his horses, the liveries of his atten- 
dants, glittered with gold and silver ornaments. On solemn 
feast days he performed divine service with a pomp equal 
to that of the Pope ; and on these occasions he was not 
content to be served by bishops and abbots, but he en- 
gaged even the first nobility of the land to give him water 
and a towel. All this display was pleasing to a gay young 
king, and it was also gratifying to the people, fi:om wliose 
ranks Wolsey had risen. Literature and learning found 
. in him a liberal patron. No student deserving of en- 
couragement sought his aid in vain. Besides patronising 
learning, he was also impartial in the administration of 
justice. Such was the man who for twenty-one years 
occupied the most prominent place in English politics, and 
disposed of the affairs of Europe almost at his pleasure. 
Francis I. of France, the successor of Louis, wished to 
carry his arms into Italy, and therefore desired to maintain 
peace with England. He gained Wolsey's favour by 
flatteries and presents, and by these means a new treaty 
was made with Henry, in which it Avas agreed to surrender 
Tournay to France. On the death of Maximilian Emperor 
of Germany, in 1519, his grandson, Charles King of Spain, 
and Francis, became candidates for the imperial crown. 
When the election was decided in favour of Charles, Francis, 
fearing the power of his rival, courted the alliance of 
England. Charles ruled Spain, Austria, Naples, and the 
Netherlands. The New World, with its gold and silver 
treasures, was chiefly in his possession. England and 
France were the only nations that could contend with him, 
and these united were more than a match for him. Francis 
regarded the power of CJiarles with fear end jealousy, and 



HENEY VIII. 203 

therefore he paid court to Wolsey, in the hope of securing 
the help of his royal master. He invited the English king 
to meet him in France, but before Henry set out, Charles 
visited England, and tried to detach Wolsey from Francis 
by holding out to him the prospect of becoming pope. The 
papacy was Wolsey's great ambition, and in the hope of 
obtaining it, he used all his influence to further the views 
of the emperor. 

On the day of Charles's departure from England, Henry- 
passed over to Calais, attended by his queen and the whole 
court. The interview between the kings of -roa 
England and France took place between Guisnes 
and Ardres. For fourteen days the nobility of 
the two countries vied with each other in costly enter- 
tainments, and it is said that many of them sold all that 
they had in order to outshine others in splendour. From 
the tournaments, banquets, and gorgeous display observed 
on this occasion, the place was called the Field of the 
Cloth of Gold. The meeting ended in nothing but fair 
speeches. After leaving Francis, Henry visited Charles at 
GravelineSj near Calais, where the emperor renewed his 
promises to Wolsey, and further attached him to his in- 
terests by handsome presents of money. 

On the king's return to England, the Duke of Bucking- 
ham, a descendant of Edward III., was executed on the 
charge of high treason. Some 'unguarded words of his 
about the succession to the throne were told to Henry, and 
his death was the result. 

Second War with France and Scotland. 

Two years after the ' Field of the Cloth of Gold,' war 
broke out between Charles and Francis. The emperor 
again came to England, for the purpose of securing Henry's 
help. During this visit, England declared war against 
France, and an army was sent under Earl Surrey - ___ 
to lavage the north of that country. In the fol- 
lowing year, another English army desolated the 
country as far as the neighbourhood of Paris, but these 



204 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

invasions were, on the whole, failures. In the meantime, 
the Scots, as old allies of France, were making great pre- 
parations for a raid across the borders. The English, 
however, instead of waiting to be attacked, marched into 
Scotland and forced the regent, Albany, to make a truce 
with them ; and thus Henry was at liberty to carry out 
his designs upon the Continent. 

The failure of the English invasions of France was due 
to want of money. Parliament had not met for seven 
years, but Henry, in the meantime, illegally made use of 
* benevolences.' When the Parliament assembled, Wolsey, 
attended by many nobles and prelates, came down to the 
House of Commons, and demanded for his royal master 
a grant of 800,000/. Though the Speaker, Sir Thomas 
More, seconded the request, the House would only vote 
half the sum. The cardinal wished to argue the matter 
then and there, but he was respectfully informed that it 
was the rule of the House never to reason except among 
themselves. The independence of the Commons annoyed 
the king, and he allowed seven years to pass before assem- 
bling another Parliament. 

Soon after this, Wolsey's friendship for the emperor began 
to cool. Twice he had been disappointed in obtaining the 
popedom. Pope Leo X. died in 1521, and Adrian YI. 
in 1523 ; and on the election of Clement YIL, Wolsey 
saw that Charles would never keep his promise of aiding 
him to occupy the papal chair. He therefore resolved to 
wean Henry from the emperor's cause, and pave the way 
for an alliance with France. In 1525, Francis was defeated 
and captured by the imperialist army at the battle of 
Pavia, in Italy. Disagreements at once arose between 
England and Germany ; Henry broke the alliance and made 
a treaty with the mother of Francis for the recovery of her 
son. The French king was liberated in the following year, 
but the war with the emperor immediately commenced 
again. In 1527, the imperialist forces attacked Eome, 
captured the Pope, and sacked the city. A new treaty 
was then made by Henry and Francis to drive the invaders 
out of Italy and set free the Pontiff. 



HENRY VIII. 205 

The Reformation. 

While the governments of England, France, and Ger- 
many were engaged in their quarrels with each other, a 
religious movement was taking place in the latter country, 
which produced changes of the utmost importance. 
Thoughtful men in all countries had long felt the necessity 
of making reforms in Church matters. Twice since the 
Norman Conquest men's minds had risen up against the 
tyrannical power of the Eomish Church. The Albigenses 
in the south of France revolted against the papacy in the 
thirteenth century, but their spirit was crushed by a savage 

Soldiery. In England, WicklifFe commenced a movement 
of a similar kind in the following century, which spread to 
Bohemia, and there gave rise to the second attempt in 
behalf of religious liberty. Both these struggles failed, 
because the time was not ripe for change. There was 
too little knowledge in Europe to ensure success. Men 

. felt that things were going wrong, but they did not know 
how or where to put them right. Books were few and 
costly, and the art of printing was unknown. Many of 
the clergy could scarcely read, and not one in 500 of the 
laity could spell through a psalm. All that could be done 
was to check the power of the Church by special laws, and 
wait till light should come to dispel the darkness of 
ignorance. A new era came with the discovery of print- 
ing. A love of learning spread eveiy where ; books were 
eagerly bought and read ; the Bible was studied, and men 
began to think for themselves. The abuses of the Church 
were now manifest ; its errors were plain ; the idle and 
corrupt life of many of the clergy and monastic orders 
caused honest men to blush ; and a bold leader only was 
wanted to bring about a speedy reform. Such a leader 
Germany supplied in the person of Martin Luther, an 
Augustine monk, and Professor of Philosophy in the Uni- 
versity of "Wittenberg. Pope Leo X. wanted money to 
finish the church of St. Peter at Rome, to get which he sent 
monks to sell indulgences or temporal pardons for sins. 
One of these men, Tetzel by name, visited "Wittenberg, 



206 HISTOEY OP ENGLAND. 

and was openly denounced by Luther. On tlie door of 
the church in Wittenberg, the latter fixed ninety-five 
propositions, in which he maintained, against the wicked 
sale of indulgences, pardon only thi^ough faith 
in Jesus Christ. Summoned to yield to the 
authority of the Church in these questions, Luther 
maintained in the palace-hall of Leipsic, before the great and 
wise of Germany, that '■the Bible was the only 
authority in matters of faith.'' At Wittenberg he 
publicly burned the papal bull of his excommuni- 
cation, and by this act of defiance declared his undying 
opposition to the claims and errors of the Church 
over which the Pope presided. Luther's opinions 
spread like fire throughout Northern Germany. 
His followers so increased in number that it was impossible 
for any power on earth to crush them. In 1529 six princes 
and fourteen imperial cities protested against the decrees ol 
the Diet of Spires, forbidding changes in religion, and on 
this account the Reformers were called Protestants. 

The news of the Keform movement in Germany was 
gladly w^elcomed in England, where men's minds were 
eager for a like change. Henry, however, was opposed to 
it. He even wrote a book in Latin defending the Seven 
Sacraments against Luther, and sent a copy to Pope Leo X. 
The Pontiff, pleased with his royal champion, conferred 
upon him the title of Defender of the Faith {Fidei 
Defensor)^ which may still be seen on our coins in the 
letters ' F. D.' In spite of the king's opposition, the desire 
for a Reformation grew daily stronger and stronger, and the 
national feeling of independence in religious matters, and 
desire for fireedom from foreign control, were rapidly making 
way. 

Divorce of dueen Catherine. Fall of Wolsey. 

After eighteen years of married life, the king applied to 
the Pope for a divorce from his wife Queen Catherine. 
Henry, for the last three or four years, had been troubled 
with scruples about his marriage Avith his brother's widow. 
He found himself growing into middle life without a son 



HENRY VIII. 207 

to succeed to the throne. He saw all his children, with 
the exception of his daughter Mary, die a few days after 
birth. He thought this affliction to be Heaven's punish- 
ment for an unlawful marriage, and, in addition to a 
troubled conscience, the fear of a disputed succession to 
the throne disturbed his peace. Catherine was a woman 
deserving of the greatest respect. She was learned, ac- 
complished, and virtuous, and devotedly attached to her 
husband. Henry, however, had other motives for a di- 
vorce besides scruples of conscience and affairs of State. A 
beautiful young lady, Anne Boleyn, grand-daughter of 
the Duke of Norfolk, had lately appeared at the court as 
maid of honour to the queen. The king fell violently in 
love with her, and therefore became all the more anxious 
to obtain a divorce. He applied to Pope Clement ^ 
VII. for this purpose. The leading men in England 
approved of the king's intentions with regard to 
this matter ; but there were many difficulties in the way 
The Pope was then a prisoner in the hands of Charles ^ 
Catherine's nephew and he feared to offend his captor by 
granting the divorce, or the English king by refusing it. 
After much hesitation, he commissioned the cardinals 
Wolsey and Campeggio to open a court in London 
to try the lawfulness of the marriage. The king - JL^ ' 
and queen were cited to appear before this tribunal, 
and they both presented themselves. The king 
answered to his name when called upon ; but the -queen, 
instead of responding, flung herself at her husband's feet, 
and besought him in piteous language to have mercy upon 
her. Finding her appeal fruitless, she refused to submit to 
the authority of the court, and withdrew. The trial was 
spun out for two months. Every day the king expected a 
decision in his favour ; and both he and the chief men of 
the realm were indignant at the delay. While they were 
thus on the tip-toe of expectation, orders came from the 
Pope to transfer the cause to Rome. The king's fury 
knew no bounds ; and the idea of an English king appearing 
before a foreign tribunal excited the bitterest anger of the 
nation. Upon Wolsey 's head fell the indignation of king 



208 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 

and people. Though he had tried to settle the question 
according to his master's wishes, the blame of failure was 
laid upon his shoulders. A papal court sitting in London 
was most unpopular with the nation ; and when it ended in 
the manner it did, Wolsey Avas marked out for vengeance. 
He was the representative of that Pope who had insulted 
both sovereign and people, and ruin, therefore, was before 
him. The king at once dismissed him from the post of chan- 
cellor. He was ordered to leave York Place — a palace he had 
built in London, which afterwards became a royal residence, 
under the name of Whitehall. All his plate and furniture 
were seized, and he was ordered to retire to Esher, near 
Hampton Court. Parliament assembled and condemned him 
to fines and imprisonment for breaking the Statute of Prse- 
munire by obtaining bulls from Eome, but Henry pardoned 
him, and allowed him to withdraw to his see of York. The 
cardinal, however, had many enemies, and in the following 
1 fi'in ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ suddenly arrested on the charge of 
high treason. On the way to London, he was seized 
with dysentery, and with difficulty reached 
Leicester Abbey, where he died. His last words were, 
* Had I but served my God as diligently as I have served 
my king, He would not have given me over in my grey 
hairs.' 

Overthrow of the Papal Power in England. 
Suppression of the Monasteries. 

Though Henry was indignant at the Pope's conduct, he 
did not wish to break with him altogether. The English 
king had no love for the Lutheran opinions, and he had no 
desire to favour their progress by weakening the papal 
authority. He still lived in hope that the Pope would 
come to some decision in his favour. Whilst matters were 
in this state of doubt, a proposal to settle the difficulty 
reached the king's ears, and was received with the greatest 
joy. Dr. Thomas Cranmer, Fellow of Jesus College, 
Cambridge, was one evening in the company of Gardiner, 
Secretary of State, afterwards Bishop of Winchester, and 
Fox, the king's almoner. Conversation turned upon the 



HENKY Vin. 209 

divorce, when Cranmer suggested that the question should 
be put to the universities of Europe : * Whether it was law- 
ful for a man to marry his brother's widow.' The suggestion 
Avas carried to the king, who exclaimed : ' Who is this 
Dr. Cranmer ? Where is he ? Marry, I will speak to 
him ; let him be sent for out of hand. This man, I trow, 
hath got the right sow by the ear.' The question was put 
to the universities, and the decision of the majority was in 
the king's favour. Cranmer's fortune was now made. In 
1533 he became Archbishop of Canterbury, and received 
from the Pope a confirmation of his appointment. 

In the meantime several important changes had taken 
place in England, which troubled the court of Eome. The 
English clergy were threatened with the punishment of prae- 
munire for submitting to the authority of the legatine court 
over which Wolsey had presided. They, however, obtained 
the royal pardon by a fine of 118,840/. But to guard against 
forgetting the king's supreme authority for the future, the 
Convocation, or parliamentary assembly of the clergy, was 
compelled to acknowledge that the king was the protector 
and supreme head of the Church and clergy of ^ rqi 
England, as far as is permitted by the law of 
Christ. The Parliament of 1532 forbade the 
levying of first-fruits, which were a year's income given to 
the Pope by all bishops and archbishops upon presentation 
to their preferments. The payment of these was left in 
future to the king's discretion. The Parliament of 1533 
forbade all appeals to Eome. These measures were warn- 
ings to the Pope of the danger that attended his conduct on 
the divorce question. He knew he was acting unjustly in 
refusing Henry's request, but he had not the courage to 
brave the anger of the Emperor Charles. Henry determined 
to wait no longer. In 1533, he privately married Anne 
Boleyn, and in the same year Archbishop Cranmer opened 
his court at Dunstable and pronounced the king's marriage 
with Catherine of Arragon invalid. Anne Boleyn was 
shortly afterwards crowned queen. Catherine spent the 
remaining three years of her life in retirement, and died at 
Kimbolton. The Pope, on hearing the news of Henry's 



210 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

marriage, threatened to excommunicate him unless he put 
Anne away ; but the king met the threat with "defiance. 

The excommunication of their sovereign roused the in- 
dignation of the nation. The whole country was moved to 
a man, and the excitement was intense. The clergy were 
consulted in Convocation, and they declared that ' the 
Bishop of Eome has no greater jurisdiction given him in this 
realm of England than any other foreign bishop.' Thus 
the Church of England declared in lawful synod her in- 
dependence of papal authority. Then came the question 
*Who was to be Head of the English Church? This was 

1 f\*\4. ^^^^^^^ ^y Parliament in the ' Act of Supremacy,' 
^ which declared the king to be the supreme ' Head 
in earth of the Church of England.' 

Though the EngHsh Church had asserted her inde- 
pendence, her teaching remained unaltered. Henry was 
still opposed to the Reformers, and prided himself upon the 
correctness of his religious views. The ' Act of Supremacy,' 
however, offended many. Sir Thomas More, and Fisher, 
Bishop of Rochester, lost their lives by refusing to accept 
it. (1535.) The monks, especially, were loud in their 
opposition, because they were dependent upon the Roman 
Pontiff; and many of them were detected in dangerous 
conspiracies. A half-witted Kentish girl, named Elizabeth 
Barton, was subject to hysterical fits, during which she was 
accustomed to say strange things. Silly people thought 
her inspired, and called her the Holy Maid of Kent. 
Designing priests taught her to speak against the new 
opinions which were making way in the country, and 
against the king's marriage and government. For a time 
no notice v^as taken of her, but at last she and her abettors 
were put to death. 

One of the king's chief advisers at this time was 
Thomas Cromwell. This man had risen by his talents 
from the post of Wolsey's solicitor to that of Secretary 
of State, and Henry, after the separation of England from 
Rome, gave him the control of the temporal affairs of 
the Church, with the title of Vicar-General. He was 
afterwards raised to the rank of Earl of Essex. He advised 



HENKY VIII. 211 

the king to suppress the monasteries, as the strongholds 
of the papacy, and to fill his coffers with their riches. 
A commission of enquiry having reported that many of 
these institutions were hot-beds of vice. Parliament voted 
the suppression of all those possessing a revenue _ __ ,» 
below 200^. a year ; and three years later the 
greater monasteries met with a similar fate. In 
all, 3,219 religious houses were suppressed, of which the 
annual income amounted to 161,000Z. — equal to more 
than 2,000,000Z. of modern money. With a portion of 
this sum six new bishoprics were created — Bristol, Glou- 
cester, Peterborough, Chester, Oxford, and Westminster. 
Trinity College, Cambridge, and Christ Church, Oxford, 
were also established, and a few chapters, hospitals, and 
grammar schools founded. A pension was settled on the 
abbots and priors, but the great bulk of the property was 
granted to courtiers and favourites, sold at a low price, 
or gambled away^ 

The suppression of the monasteries caused much discon- 
tent, especially in the north. Houseless monks wandered 
through towns and villages, exciting men's pity, and their 
fears of future changes. Church property, they said, 
would be taken next, and the religion of their fathers would 
soon be a thing of the past. A strong papal party thus grew 
up, which thought to stop further reforms by force of arms. 
A rising occurred in Lincolnshire, but was soon suppressed. 
A more formidable one took place in Yorkshire, under the 
leadership of a gentleman named Aske. At the head of 
40,000 men, he took York, Hull, and Pontefract Castle. 
The Archbishop of York and several nobles joined - ^^m 
the movement, which received the name of The 

AD 

Pilgrimage of Grace. Priests in their robes 
marched in front, carrying crosses, and banners with sacred 
symbols woven upon them. The object of the insurrec- 
tion was to drive base-born counsellors from about the king, 
to restore the papal power, and to suppress heresy. The 
rebellion was put down, and Aske and many others suffered 
death. 



212 HISTORY OF ENaLAND. 

Anne Boleyn. Jane Seymour. Translations of the 
Bible. The Bloody Statute. 

After three years of married life, Anne Boleyn perished 
on the scaffold. The king, disappointed at the failure of 
male issue, soon cooled in his affection, and Anne's enemies 
were ever on the watch to work her ruin. They excited 
Henry's jealousy by wicked stories about her, and as he was 
already in love with one of her maids of honour, he had no 
scruples in sending his wife to the Tower. She was brought 
to trial on the charge of unfaithfulness to her husband, 
and sentenced to death. No voice, save Cranmer's, was 
raised in her behalf, and the unhappy queen was beheaded. 
(May 17, 1536.) The following day the king married 
Jane Seymour. Parliament declared Anne Boleyn's mar- 
riage invalid, and her child Elizabeth illegitimate. In the 
following year, Jane Seymour gave birth to a son, after- 
wards EdAvard VI. ; but the king's joy was cut short by 
the death of his queen twelve days after. 

While these events were going on, Protestant opinions 
were making progress in England. Many persons were 
arrested and put to death for heresy. Translations of the 
Bible found their way into the country from abroad. 
William Tyndal published an English translation of the 
New Testament at Antwerp, in 1526 ; and four years later, 
he published a translation of the Old Testament. Tyndal 
died a martyr's death by fire, near Brussels, in 1536. In 
the same year, Miles Coverdale published the entire Bible 
in English. Tyndal's translations, on their first appearance 
in London, were bought up and burnt by the authorities ; 
but after the overthrow of the papal power. Archbishop 
Cranmer did his utmost for the circulation of the Scrip- 
tures. A royal decree was issued that a copy of 
Coverdale's Bible should be placed in every .parish 
church in England. Other editions soon followed 
— Matthews', in 1537 ; Cranmer's, or the Great Bible, 
in 1539 ; and Taverner's, in the same year. In 1537 there 
was also published a book for the religious guidance of the 



HENEY VIII. 213 

people, called the Institution of a Christian Man, or the 
BisJiops^ Book, because it was dedicated by the bishops to 
the king. Six years later another publication was issued, 
entitled, A Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for any 
Christian Man, or the King''s Boole. These differed very 
considerably from each other, thus showing how unsettled 
were the minds of those in authority. 

The circulation of the Scriptures by royal permission 
created a great sensation. People crowded to the churches 
to hear the sacred volume read, explained, and discussed; 
and even old men, in their eagerness, sometimes took lessons 
in reading, that they might find out the truth for themselves. 
But the privilege of an open Bible, as might be expected, was 
much abused. The Book was wrangled over in ale-houses 
and tap-rooms ; noisy crowds gathered round the church 
porches, argued their opinions in boisterous tones, to the 
annoyance of worshippers within the sacred building, 
and ofttimes ended their disputes in scandalous brawls. 
These abuses called forth a royal decree in 1543, forbidding 
persons in the lower ranks of life to read the Bible. 

Though Henry deserves credit for circulating the Scrip- 
tures amongst his subjects, yet he was still bitterly op- 
posed to the Lutheran opinions. He had made the English 
Church independent of Rome, but he had no intention of 
changing her doctrines. It was impossible, however, to pre- 
serve the old faith imbroken. The overthrow of the papal 
power removed one great obstacle to the spread of knowledge 
and the right of enquiry. Men claimed freedom of thought 
for themselves, as much as the king claimed freedom for the 
National Church, and consequently the nation was torn by 
religious parties, which hated one another to the greatest 
degree. There were, first, the Romanists, who longed to 
restore the authority of the Pope ; there were, secondly, the 
Anglicans, consisting of the majority of the bishops and 
the ancient nobility, who liked independence for their 
Church, but hated all other changes ; there were, thirdly, 
the Reformers, consisting of Cranmer and other bishops, 
and many of the nobility, who at this time differed from the 
Protestants in the single doctrine of transubstantiation ; and 



214 HISTORY OE ENG-LAND. 

lastly, there were the Protestants Proper, who, in their 
zeal against error, hated much in the old faith that waa 
true. To put an end to the religious quarrels which these 
various parties raised throughout the land, a Parliament 
assembled on purpose, passed the Statute of The Six 

Articles, which, from its severity, was called the 
loov I giQody Statute,' and ' the whip with six strings.' 

It enacted — (1) the doctrine of transubstantia- 
tion; (2) that Communion in both kinds was unnecessary; 
(3) that it was unlawful for priests to marry ; (4) that 
vows of chastity were binding ; (5) that private Masses 
ought to be continued ; (6) that auricular confession should 
be' retained. The punishment for breaking Article 1 was 
death by burning ; for the remaining five, loss of property 
for the first offence, and death for the second. The passing 
of this Act was a great blow to the Reforming party in the 
State. In a short time 500 persons were thrown into 
prison, and bishops Latimer and Shaxton were also im- 
prisoned and compelled to resign their sees. To increase 
still further the king's power in those critical times, the 
same Parliament passed a decree giving to a royal procla- 
mation the force of law. This measure made Henry a 
despotic king. 

Anne of Cleves. Catherine Howard. Catherine Parr, 

Three years had passed since the death of Jane Seymour. 
Cromwell, the king's chief minister, advised his master to 
take another wife from Protestant Germany. There were 
several reasons for such a marriage. The powers of Rome 
were at work to crush the Reformation, and England, 
especially, was an object of attack. A marriage with a 
German Protestant princess might end in a league against 
papal designs, and be a set-off against the party in 
England which had succeeded in passing the Six Articles. 
A portrait of Anne, daughter of the Duke of Cleves, was 
presented to Henry, and it was .settled that she should come 
to England for marriage. When the king saw her, he Avas 
greatly disappointed with her appearance and manners. Her 



HENRY VIII. 215 

portrait led him to expect a beautiful lady, but he declared 
that they had sent him a Flanders mare. It required mucli 
persuasion before he could be prevailed upon to carry out 
his engagements. Only the fear of driving the Lutheran 
princes into the arms of his enemy, the Emperor Charles, 
overcame his repugnance', and the marriage took place. 
(January 6, 1540.) Henry could never conquer his dislike 
for Anne, and his capricious temper vented its displeasure 
upon the minister who had arranged the match. Cromwell 
was hated on all sides. The old nobility looked upon him 
as a proud upstart ; the clergy hated him as the adviser of 
the spoliation of the monasteries ; and the Protestant party 
blamed him for his seeming support of the ' Six Articles.' 
His enemies, taking advantage of the king's disappointment 
and displeasure, obtained permission to arrest him on the 
charge of high treason. He was suddenly seized at the 
Council table, sent to the Tower, condemned by j -i oo 
bill of attainder, and beheaded. This was another ^ e^^v ' 
victory for the enemies of the Eeformation. Mea- 
sures were at once taken to break the alliance 
with the Protestant princes of Germany by divorcing Anne 
of Cleves. A judicial separation was obtained on the ground 
that the marriage had taken place against the king's will. 
Anne received a pension of 3,000^. per year, and retired to 
Richmond Palace. She lived in England till her death, in 
1557. 

Henry's fifth wife was Catherine Howard, niece of the 
Duke of Norfolk. This marriage was favourably regarded 
by the Romanist party. The ' Bloody Statute ' was enforced 
with greater vigour, though the enemies of the royal supre- 
macy did not escape. The king had scarcely been married 
six months before rumours were afloat that his wife had 
been immoral previous to her marriage. Henry received 
the news with amazement, and his vindictive spirit re- 
solved on vengeance. Love gave way to hate, 
and Catherine Howard suffered the same fate on - -* * 
Tower Hill as Anne Boleyn. Her accomplice, 
Lady Eochford, who had been the chief instru- 
ment in the ruin of Anne Boleyn, perished at the same time. 



216 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Henry's last wife was Catherine Parr, the widow of 
Lord Latimer, and a woman of virtue and good sense. 
(July 12, 1543.) She secretly favoured the Eeform party, 
and carefully instructed Prince Edward and the Princess 
Elizabeth in her principles. Up to this time the public 
worship of the Church was carried on in Latin, though the 
Bible was allowed in English. But in 1544, the Litany 
was ordered to be said in the vulgar tongue ; and in the 
following year a collection of English prayers for morning 
and evening service was directed to be used in the place of 
the breviary. Catherine Parr, though careful of her 
opinions, was once in great danger. Gardiner, Bishop of 
Winchester, the leader of the Anglican party, dreaded her 
influence. On one occasion she displeased the king bv 
advocating too freely the views of the Eeformers, and 
Gardiner took advantage of this to draw up articles of im- 
peachment against her. A friend warned her of the 
danger, and, by rare tact, she disarmed the king's dis- 
pleasure, and defeated the designs of her enemies. 

War with Scotland and France. Execution of the 
Earl of Surrey. 

Ever since the rupture with Eome, the friends of the 
papacy were busy in plots against England. James V.. of 
Scotland, as a friend of the Pope, encouraged his subjects in 
attacks upon the English. Henry, in consequence, declared 
war against Scotland. While the English army lay at Ber- 
wick, 10,000 Scots entered Cumberland. A small body of 
- g-g English suddenly attacked them near the Sol way, 
^ ^ and put them to flight. This affair is known as 
the Rout of Solway. James was so vexed at 
this defeat, that he shut himself up, and died of grief, 
shortly after the birth of an only daughter. Henry wished 
to marry his son Edward to this princess, afterwards the 
famous Mary Queen of Scots, but the papal party in 
Scotland refused the match, and made an alliance with the 
French king. Henry, in revenge, made war with France. 
With 30^000 men, he landed at Calais, and captured 



HENEY VIII. 217 

Boulogne, after a siege of two months. (1544.) Tlie war 
continued for two years longer without any important 
results. Peace was concluded in 1546, by which it was 
agreed that Henry should restore Boulogne in eight years, 
and receive in return 2,000,000 crowns. Scotland was also 
included in the treaty. 

At home the struggle of the religious parties went on as 
bitterly as ever; but the last year of Henry's life was 
marked by a favourable change towards the Keformation 
movement. In 1546, the king offered to unite with the 
Lutheran princes in a league, offensive and defensive, to be 
called the * League Christian.' He also hinted to Cranmer 
his intention of abolishing the Mass. The Anglican and 
Roman parties viewed with jealousy the king's strong 
leaning to the party of progress, and plotted for the re- 
storation of the papal authority. The hope of the Anglicans 
was fixed upon the family of the Duke of Norfolk. Earl 
Surrey, the duke's son, intrigued to obtain for his 
family the chief authority in the realm after the king's 
death. He assumed on his shield the quarterings of the 
arms of the heir-apparent to the throne, and thus enabled 
his opf)onents to accuse him of aiming at the crown. The 
king ordered the arrest of father and son ; and the young' 
earl was condemned and executed for high treason. 
(January 19, 1547.) Earl Surrey was distinguished as a 
scholar, courtier, and soldier; and his poetical writings 
have given him a high place in English literature. But am- 
bition and party zeal excited him to play for a high stake, 
and he lost. The Duke of Norfolk was condemned by bill 
of attainder as a party to his son's schemes, but his life 
was saved by the king's death on the night before the day 
fixed for his execution. 

Death and Character of Henry. 

Henry had suffered very much in his latter years from 
an ulcer in the leg. His body, besides, had become corpulent 
and unwieldy, so that he had to be carried about from one 
apartment to the other. He was well enough the day 



218 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

before his death to talk with some of his ministers upon the 
condition of the country, and he gave them good advice 
about the future policy of the government. But in the 
evening he grew rapidly worse. He expressed a wish to 
see Archbishop Cranmer. When the prelate reached 
Whitehall, the king, though conscious, was speechless. 
Cranmer, ' speaking comfortably to him, desired him to 
give him some token that he put his trust in God through 
Jesus Christ ; therewith the king wrung hard the arch- 
bishop's hand,' and expired. (January 28, 1547.) He 
was buried in St. George's Chapel, Windsor. 

He bequeathed the throne by will to Edward his son, 
then to Mary, then to Elizabeth ; and, in default of issue, 
to the heirs of his sister Mary, who had married the Duke 
of Suffolk. 

Henry was a man of vigorous mind and strong will. 
Once resolved upon anything, nothing could divert him 
from his purpose. He was open, blunt, and courageous, 
but possessed of a temper fierce, unbending, and un- 
forgiving. Many of his acts are marked by cruelty and 
injustice ; but his position was surrounded with the 
greatest difficulty, and harsh measures were sometimes 
necessary to save the country in the crisis through which 
it was then passing. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

The House of Commons increased very much in im- 
portance, from the king's practice of appealing to it in 
support of his measures, and by the use he made of it to 
subdue the resistance of the House of Lords. 

In 1536, Wales was incorporated with England, and 
sent representatives to Parliament. In 1542, Ireland 
became a kingdom. On Henry's accession, his authority 
only extended over its chief seaports and eastern coun- 
ties. The remainder of the island was under the rule of 
sixty chieftains of Irish, and thirty of English descent. 
Henry won over the leaders, and persuaded them to ac- 
knowledge his supremacy, both spiritual and temporal. 
This king is considered the real founder of the Royal Navy 



HENRY VIII. 



219 



He establislied dockyards at Woolwich, Deptford, and 
Portsmouth ; appointed a Board of Admiralty, and placed 
the naval service on a distinct footing. Trinity House 
was established to encourage navigation. The College 
of Physicians was instituted. Muskets, invented by the 
Spaniards, took the place of bows and arrows. Parish re- 
gisters of births, deaths, and marriages, were established by 
Cromwell. The pound was first called a sovereign. Hops, 
cabbages, carrots, turnips, celery, lettuces, were brought 
from Holland and Flanders. Gipsies first made their ap- 
pearance in England about this time. 




Costume ; illustrative of the period. 



220 HISTOEY OF .ENGLAND. 



EDWARD VI. 
Born 1537 A.D, Began to Beign 1547 A.D. Died 1553 A.B. 



The Kegency. 

War with Scotland. 

Lord Seymour. 

Progress of the Reformation. 



Popular Insurrections. 
Pall of Somerset. 
Northumberland's Erie. 
Death of the Kinff. 



Miscellaneous Pacts. 



The Regency. War with Scotland. Lord Seymour. 

Edward VL came to the throne in the tenth year of his 
age. He was the only son of Jane Seymour. The Go- 
vernment was invested in a council of sixteen, of which 
two were bishops — Cranmer and the Bishop of Durham — 
and the rest laymen. The Council, contrary to the late 
king's will, appointed one of their number, the Earl of 
Hertford, brother of Jane Seymour, as Protector of the 
kingdom. One of the first acts of the Government was 
to create some new peers in the place of those extinct by 
war, disease, and the executioner's sword. The Protector, 
accordingly, became Duke of Somerset. The two great 
religious parties in the State were fairly represented in 
the Council. Somerset favoured the Eeformers, while the 
Lord Chancellor, newly created Earl of Southampton, 
maintained opposite views. The Protector, however, suc- 
ceeded in obtaining the dismissal of the Chancellor for ex- 
ceeding his authority. But not satisfied with this advantage, 
he increased his own authority by obtaining a patent from 
young Edward which entirely upset the will of Henry VIII. 
He thus became Protector with regal power ; but it was 
significant that only seven of the Council signed their names 
to this new commission. 

In 1543, Henry VIII. had concluded a treaty with 
Scotland, in which it was agreed that Prince Edward 



EDWAED VI. 221 

should marry the young Queen of Scots. The Protector 
Somerset was anxious to fulfil this article of the treaty, 
but the feeling in Scotland was opposed to it. He there- 
fore invaded that country at the head of 18,000 men, for 
the purpose of compelling the Scots to. fulfil 
their agreement. The Regent Arran met him at Sept. 10, 
Pinkie, near Musselburgh, with an army twice 1547 
as numerous. A fierce battle ensued, in which a.d. 
the Scots lost from ten to fourteen thousand men, 
while the English loss amounted to about two hundred. 
Leith was then captured and burnt, the ships in the har- 
bour taken and destroyed, a few castles dismantled, and 
two small islands garrisoned in the Forth. These were 
all the advantages the Protector reaped from the invasion; 
while, on the other hand, the hatred of the Scots to Eng- 
land was increased, and the marriage made impossible. 
Queen Mary was sent to France for safety, and in the 
course of time became the wife of the dauphin. 

The Protector hurriedly returned from Scotland to put 
a stop to the intrigues of his brother, Lord Seymour, the 
Admiral of England, who had married the widow of 
Henry VIH. This nobleman envied his brother's power, 
and plotted to undermine his authority. After the death 
of his wife, he paid his addresses to the Princess Elizabeth, 
then in her sixteenth year. His plots and schemes of 
ambition were cut short. A bill of attainder was passed 
against him, and he was executed on Tower Hill. (March 
29, 1549.) 

Progress of the Eeformation. 

This short reign is remarkable for the vigorous progress 
of the Eeformation of the English Church. The Protector 
was well known to be favourable to this movement. His 
accession to office was the signal for those who had been 
sternly kept down by Henry VIII. to preach boldly against 
the errors of the Church. In many places, the people 
themselves had taken the matter into their own hands, and 
cleared the churches of things thought objectionable, with- 
out waiting for instructions from those in authority. Early 
11 



222 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

in 1547, an order was issued by the Government for the 
general purification of the churches, and forthwith images 
were taken down, stained-glass windows removed, and the 
walls whitewashed to hide the painted stories of gospel 
history and legends of saints. A commission was appointed 
to visit each" diocese and parish, to report upon the state 
of religion, and to carry into eifect the orders of the Council. 
Amongst other things, it was directed that a large Bible in 
English should be immediately placed in every church, 
and also a copy of Erasmus's ' Paraphrase of the Gospels.' 
Certain parts of the public services of the Church were 
to be read in English, and twelve sermons, or Homilies, 
prepared by Cranmer, were issued to supply the lack of 
preaching power. These changes were, on the whole, well 
received in towns, but in country places they were not 
so favourably regarded. Bonner, Bishop of London, and 
Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester, were imprisoned for re- 
sisting the commissioners, but were soon liberated. On 
the assembling of Parliament, the laws of Henry IV. and 
Henry V. against the Lollards were repealed, as well as the 
' Six Articles ' of the late reign. A committee of bishops 
and divines drew up for the use of the Church a new 
service-book, which is knoAvn as The First Book of 
Common Prayer, and was first published in 1549. At 
the same time Parliament enforced the use of this prayer- 
book by passing the first Act of Uniformity. Bishops 
Gardiner and Bonner, still continuing their opposition to 
the Eeformation, were deprived of their sees. Forty-two 
Articles of Eeligion, containing the doctrines of the English 
Church, were drawn up in 1551 ; the first prayer-book 
was revised and published in the following year, and a 
second Act of Uniformity passed at the same time. These 
important changes, which made the Church of England 
such as we find it in the present day, were chiefly carried 
out under the superintendence of Archbishop Cranmer, 
and Eidley, Bishop of London. 

Persecution for religious opinions did not cease with the 
work of Eeformation. Toleration was not then understood, 
neither was it anywhere practised. Obedience to the 



EDWAED VI. 223 

directions of the prayer-book was required of all persons, 
and those who disputed its teaching were treated as heretics, 
and punished accordingly. Thus Joan Bocher, of Kent, and 
a Dutch surgeon, named Van Paris, were burnt for heresy. 

Popular Insurrections. 

The religious reforms of this reign caused much dis- 
content in many parts of the country. Many men took 
part in the work of the Reformation for their own selfish 
ends. They cared more for gain than for truth, and their 
unscrupulous dealing, in consequence, roused many foes. 
But there were other causes at work to excite the dis- 
content of the people. Side by side with the progress of 
the Reformation, there was a great social change going on. 
The feudal system was crumbling to pieces, producing 
between landlord and tenant many differences of opinion 
as to the rights of property. The high price of wool and 
the cheapness of sheep-farming tempted landlords to turn 
their plough-lands into grass, and throw several farms into 
one. Labourers were thus deprived of work, and left to 
shift for themselves. The evil was further increased by 
the great number of freemen which the decay of the 
feudal system had sent into the laboiu- market. Wages 
were, in consequence, very low ; and, to make bad worse, 
they were paid in base coin. Increase of sheep- farming, 
too, lessened the production of corn, and bread became 
dear. Rapacious landlords, besides, enclosed many of the 
commons, turned forests into parks, hedged round and 
appropriated public pastures in which cottagers formerly 
fed their cattle. Laws were passed, in vain, to save the 
poor from beggary and starvation. Love of gain sug- 
gested many ways of evading the statutes enacted to check 
the increase of sheep-farms. The villages and highways 
were, in consequence, covered with outcast families 
reduced to beggary ; and thousands of dispossessed tenants, 
once the holders of comfortable homes, surrounded by 
starving children, clamoured in vain for redress. There 
was then no poor-rate to relieve the distressed. In former 
times, the hungry labourer and the traveller found in the 



224 HISTOKY OF ET^-aLAND. 

monasteries relief and shelter ; but these institutions no 
longer existed, and as yet no plan was devised to do their 
charitable work. There was no other course open to 
the poor man than to beg from place to place. But the 
Government would not allow this. To put down the 
swarms of beggars which covered the country, severe laws 
were passed, by which persons begging without a license 
were sentenced to be whipped, branded, lose one of their 
ears, be made slaves for life, or hanged, — the punishment 
depending upon the number of convictions. A distressed 
population offered an excellent field to the enemies of the 
Eeformation. The numerous houseless monks found little 
trouble in persuading the people to look upon the changes 
in religion as the chief cause of their wretched condition, 
and the flames of insurrection soon broke out in several parts 
of the country; but they were nowhere dangerous except 
in Cornwall, Devonshire, and Norfolk. In the two former 
counties, 10,000 men appeared in arms, demanding the 
restoration of the old faith and the extinction of Pro- 
testantism by fire and sword. (1549.) Lord Eussell was 
sent against them, who, after some severe fighting, dispersed 
the rioters with great slaughter. The ringleaders were 
executed in London, and many of the lower orders were 
put to death by martial law. 

But the rising in Norfolk was far more serious. On 
Household Hill, near Norwich, one Ket, a wealthy tanner, 
formed a camp, around which 16,000 suffering yeomen 
and farm-servants soon collected. A large oak tree stood 
in the midst of the adjacent common, and under its 
branches Ket sat daily administering justice, and trying 
the country gentlemen for their conduct to the poor. The 
Norfolk rebels demanded the destruction of enclosures, and 
the reform of local abuses. The Earl of Warwick, at the 
head of 6,000 men, attacked the insurgents. Two thou- 
sand rebels fell in the action ; Ket was hanged at Norwich 
Castle, and the rising was entirely put down. (1549.) 

These disturbances originated the appointment of lords- 
lieutenants of counties, with authority to levy men, and 
lead them against the enemies of the king. 



EDWAED VI. 225 

Fall of Somerset. 

The blame of all the disorders of the country fell upon 
the Protector. The government of England was a difficult 
task, and from the first he had many enemies to contend 
against. Ambition led him to obtain a patent for the 
purpose of increasing his authority, and then he did many 
things without consulting his fellow- Councillors. The 
old nobility regarded him as an upstart, and were disgusted 
with him because he sided with the poor in their grievances 
against the rich. The Eomish party hated him for his 
zeal in the work of Eeformation. Many blamed him for 
the execution of his brother, Lord Seymour. The palace 
which he was building in the Strand excited the jealousy 
of the nobility and the ill-will of the populace. To obtain 
materials and space enough for this building, he pulled 
down two churches, the town-houses of three bishops, and 
the chapels attached to them. He had also appropriated to 
himself the spoils of five or six religious houses, in addition 
to three granted to him by Henry VIH. Foreign affiiirs 
were also unsuccessful in his hands. The English garrisons 
were driven from the castles of Broughty and Haddington, 
in Scotland, and the French had all but retaken Boulogne. 
Somerset's great rival at the Council Board was Dudley, 
Earl of "Warwick, son of the rapacious minister of 
Henry VH. Created Viscount Lisle by Henry VIK., he 
was appointed a member of the Council of Eegency, and 
received the title of Earl of Warwick on the accession of 
Edward VI. This nobleman and others of the Council 
expressed dissatisfaction with the Protector's government, 
and began to act independently of his authority. Somerset 
became angry. He accused the Council of treason, and 
of intending to restore the papal authority ; he appealed to 
the people for help to defend the crown, and took the 
young king from Hampton Court to Windsor. His appeals 
to the country having failed, he was obliged to surrender 
himself to the will of thvi Council, and he was sent to 
the Tower on the charge of usurping the king's power. 



226 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Before the Council, Somerset confessed on his knees the 
charges brought against him. Parliament deprived him of 
all his offices, and inflicted upon him a fine of 
1 'SdQ 2,000/. a year; but through the king's kindness, he 
^ jj escaped the payment of this ruinous sum, and soon 
regained his freedom. After a short time, he was 
readmitted into the Council, and became apparently recon- 
ciled to his rival the Earl of Warwick. He even married 
his daughter to this nobleman's eldest son. 

On the fall of the Duke of Somerset, Warwick became 
the leading man in the regency. Not content with this 
position, his ambition led him to covet the earldom of 
Northumberland, which he succeeded in getting, with the 
title of Duke. One success inspired hopes of others ; but 
feeling that Somerset was a bar to further ambitious pro- 
jects, he determined to get rid of him. The Duke of 
Somerset, aware of Northumberland's intentions, plotted 
to upset his authority. His plans were betrayed ; and he 
was forthwith arrested on a charge of conspiring to seize 
the king, and plotting against the lives of certain members 
of the Council. Condemned on the charge of felony, the 
unfortunate Protector was beheaded on Tower Hill, amidst 
a great concourse of people, who remembered that he had 
always showed himself their friend. Crowding 
^'i* ' round the scaffold, they dipped their handker- 
chiefs in his blood ; that they might have some re- 
membrance of one who, with all his faults, had 
ever taken a lively interest in their welfare. 

Northumberland's Rule. Death of the King^. 

The chief authority in the kingdom was now in the 
hands of Northumberland. He won the confidence and 
affection of the young king by his apparent zeal for the 
Reformation. When Edward's health threatened to give 
way, the ambitious duke began to scheme to get the crown 
for his own family. He married his fourth son, Lord 
Guildford Dudley, to Lady Jane Grey, the daughter of 
the Marchioness of Dorset, and great-granddaughter of 



EDWAED VI. 

Henry VII. Knowing Edward's love for the Reformation, 
he began to work upon his fears with respect to its iate if 
his sister Mary, who was known to be devotedly attached 
to the Romish faith, should succeed to the throne. He 
urged him to set aside her claims, and also those of Eliza- 
beth, and bequeath the crown to Lady Jane Grey. The 
king consented to this arrangement, and ordered the judges 
to draw up letters patent to this effect. At first they hesi- 
tated to comply, but the threats of Northumberland and 
the king's command prevailed. The patent was signed at 
Greenwich by the chief of the nobility, Cranmer's name 
being the last added. 




Edward VI. and Lady Jane Grey. 



Immediately after this event, Edward became rapidly 
worse. His physicians were dismissed, and he was put 
under the care of a woman who professed to work a speedy 



228 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

cure. But her medicines increased his illness. Eruptions 
came out over his skin ; his hair fell oiF, and then his nails, 
and afterwards the joints of his toes and fingers. Rumour 
said that Northumberland, having completed his arrange- 
ments, hastened the king's death by poison. Edward died 
at Greenwich, in the sixteenth year of his age and the 
seventh of his reign. He was a prince gentle and studious, 
pious and affectionate, and full of much promise. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

In 1553 Sir Hugh Willoughby sailed from England 
with three ships to discover a north-east passage to India. 
One vessel found its way into the White Sea, and win- 
tered at Archangel. The others were wrecked with loss of 
all hands off the coast of Nova Zembla. The Book of 
Psalms was turned into verse. Edward founded Christ's 
Hospital for the education of the poor, and restored 
St. Thomas's for the relief of the sick. Bridewell was also 
given to the citizens of London for the correction of the 
idle. Crowns and half-crowns were first coined. The 
* sweating sickness ' entirely left the country in this reign. 



MARY I. 229 



MARY I. 
Born 1516 A.D. Began to Eeign 1553 A.D. Died 1558 A.D. 



Lady Jane G-rey. 

Execution of Northumberland. 

Restoration of Romanism. 

Insurrection. 

Execution of Lady Jane Grey. 



The Marian Persecution. 

"War with France. 

Death and Character of the 

Queen. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



Lady Jane Grey. Execution of Northumberland. 

Northumberland kept the death of Edward a secret for two 
days, in the hope of getting possession of the Princess 
Mary. He at once proclaimed the accession of Lady 
Jane Grey, but the Londoners received the heralds in 
silence. The Lady Jane was the eldest daughter of the 
Marquis of Dorset, who had lately been created Duke of 
Suffolk. She was about the same age as Edward YL, and 
was, like him, studious and accomplished far beyond her 
age. At fifteen she was learning Hebrew, and could write 
Greek; at sixteen, she could correspond with divines in 
Latin. She was pious and amiable, and in every way a 
pattern of virtue. The news of her accession caused her 
the greatest grief. The crown was, indeed, forced upon 
her by her ambitious father-in-law, and for twelve days 
she bore the name of queen. In the meanwhile Mary, the 
daughter of Catherine of Arragon, having escaped the troops 
sent for her capture, was receiving the homage of the 
nobility and gentry in Suffolk. Men of all ranks and 
creeds rallied round her. The Dul^e of Northumberland 
marched into Suffolk at the head of 6,000 men, but his 
forces were so thinned by desertion that he was obliged to 
retreat. Everywhere the accession of Mary was hailed 
with shouts of applause. The Council, who had signed 
the letters patent of Edward VI., pronounced in her 



230 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

favour, and their example was at once followed by the 
City of London. There was now no hope for the Lady 
Jane. Her father rushed to her room in the Tower, and 
announced that she was no longer queen. Northumber- 
land was at Cambridge when the news of the doings of the 
Council reached him. Finding that success was hopeless, 
he threw up his cap and shouted, ' God save Queen Mary ! ' 
But his submission came too late. He was at once 
arrested and sent to the Tower, together with the Duke of 
Suffolk, Guilford Dudley, Lady Jane Grey, and several 
others. Northumberland expiated his guilt on the scaffold ; 
Suffolk was pardoned ; and the Lady Jane and her husband 
were kept in close confinement, under sentence of death. 
Mary entered London in triumph, accompanied by Anne of 
Cleves and the Princess Elizabeth. (August 3, 1553.) 

Restoration of Romanism. 

Maiy was warmly attached to her mother's religion, and 
she resolved to restore it in England in all its integrity. 
Gardiner, Bonner, and other bishops who had been re- 
moved in the late reign, were at once replaced in their 
sees, while, on the other hand, Holgate, Archbishop of York, 
Coverdale, Bishop of Exeter, Eidley of London, Hooper of 
Gloucester, and Latimer of Worcester, were sent to prison. 
The clergy generally were encouraged to revive the Mass and 
all the ceremonies of the old religion without waiting for the 
sanction of the law. All the foreign divines who had found 
a refuge and a welcome in England in the late reign were 
ordered to leave the country. Cranmer, though urged to fly 
from the danger evidently awaiting him, refused to leave his 
post, and, after a few weeks, he was sent to the Tower con- 
demned on the charge of high treason, but the punishment 
of death was not then inflicted. Parliament was opened 
with a gorgeous celebration of the Mass in Latin, in defiance 
of the law. That assembly then ratified the marriage of 
Henry VIH. and Catherine of Arragon, and annulled the 
divorce which had been pronounced by Cranmer. All the 
laws respecting religion passed in the late reign were 



MARY I. 231 

repealed, and the form of divine worship as in the last year 
of Henry VIII. was re-established. The married clergy 
were separated from their wives or removed from their 
office, and persecution threatened all who refused submis- 
sion to the change in religion. 

In the following year. Cardinal Pole returned to England 
as papal legate, and invited the Houses of Parliament to 
become reconciled to the Pope. They voted an address, 
in which they supplicated pardon for the errors of the 
nation, and prayed to be admitted once more into com- 
munion with the Church of Eome. Gardiner presented 
the petition to the Cardinal. At Whitehall the Parliament, 
on bended knees, received from Pole the words of absolu- 
tion and were once more received into the bosom 
of the Eomish Church. The queen surrendered i te>i ' 
to the legate all the Church lands in the posses- 
sion of the crown, but the nobility, by the Pope's 
permission, were allowed to keep all that they had received 
in the two previous reigns. 

Insurrections. Execution of Lady Jane Grey. 

As soon as the Emperor Charles heard of Mary's acces- 
sion, he proposed his son Philip to her for a husband. 
Philip was a widower, eleven years younger than the 
queen ; but the difference in age offered no bar to the 
marriage. The neAvs of such an alliance with the Court 
of Spain caused the greatest dread amongst aU ranks of 
people. The Protestants were already alarmed at the re- 
vival of the Mass, and considered a marriage with a prince 
of the most bigoted Eoman Catholic country in Europe 
as certain destruction to themselves. Both Lords and 
Commons were fearful for the independence of the nation. 
They thought that, under a Spanish king, England would 
become a province of Spain. Remonstrances were in vain 
presented to the queen ; her mind was bent on the match, 
and Philip she was determined to have. Plots were then 
set on foot to prevent the marriage by force of arms. The 
French, jealous of the increase of Spanish influence, 



232 HISTORY OF ENGLAI^D. 

encouraged the conspirators with promises of assistance. 
Sir Thomas Wyatt proposed to raise the men of Kent ; Sir 
Peter Carew, Devonshire ; and the Duke of SuiFolk, the 
Midland counties. Carew and Suffolk failed at the out- 
set ; but Wyatt's attempt was at first attended with suc- 
cess. At Rochester, the yeomanry and peasantry of Kent 
flocked round his standard. The Duke of Norfolk, at 
the head of the London train bands, was sent against him, 
but his men joined the rebel ranks. Wyatt forced his 
way into London, where his followers, finding that the 
nobility kept aloof from the movement, gradually fell away, 
and he was at last seized near Temple Bar, and executed. 
Sixty or seventy others also suffered for this rebellion. 
Four hundred, with ropes round their necks, were led before 
the queen, and, falling on their knees, received a pardon. 
(February, 1554.) 

This rising cost the lives of Lady Jane Grey and her 
husband. The Duke of Suffolk's guilt was considered a 
good excuse of ridding the land of one who was once called 
queen. Lady Jane and her husband were, accordingly, 
executed within the Tower walls. Dudley suffered first, 
and his bleeding body was borne past his young wife, as 
she was going to the scaffold. Her father soon after met 
with a similar fate. The queen sent to prison many of 
the nobility and gentry who were suspected of disaffection. 
The Princess Elizabeth was also in danger of her life. 
The Spanish ambassador and Bishop Gardiner advised the 
queen to put her to death. She was sent to the Tower, 
but nothing could be found to implicate her in the late 
rising, and after two months, she was removed to Wood- 
stock as a place of confinement. 

The Marian Persecution. 

The suppression of Wyatt's rebellion strengthened the 
hands of the queen, and hastened the marriage with Philip 
of Spain. That prince landed at Southampton on July 20, 
1554, and in a»few days he was married to Mary at 
Winchester, It was after this event that the Parliament 



MAEY I. 233 

became reconciled to the Pope. An Assembly which on 
bended knees craved absolution from a papal legate would 
not scruple to revive the cruel laws against heretics, and 
so the old statutes against the Lollards, abolished in 
the last reign, again came into force. Thus armed, 
Bishops Gardiner and Bonner bent their minds to exter- 
minate heresy with the terrors of the stake. In the begin- 
ning of the year 1555, the dreadful persecution of the Ee- 
formers began. The first victims were Hooper, Bishop of 
Gloucester; Eogers, Prebendary of St. Paul's; Saunders, 
Eector of AUhallows ; and Taylor, Eector of Had- ^ rrk 
leigh, in Suffolk. The cruel work, thus begun, 
continued till the close of the reign. Bonner, 
Bishop of London, was the chief tool employed in this 
crusade, and he received for his cruelty the name of 
* Bloody Bonner.' Eidley, Bishop of London, and Latimer, 
formerly Bishop of Worcester, two prelates famous for 
their learning and virtue, suffered together at Oxford, in 
front of Baliol College. When the flames began to crackle, 
the aged Latimer cried out to his brother martyr, ' Be of 
good comfort. Master Eidley ! Play the man ! we shall 
this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, 
as I trust shall never be put out.' Friends had placed bags 
of powder about the neck of each to put an end to their 
sufferings. Latimer died almost immediately ; but his 
companion's death was very slow. 

Archbishop Cranmer was tried at the same time as 
Eidley and Latimer, but he was too great a person to be 
hurriedly put to death. He was considered the leading 
spirit of the English Eeformation, and it was thought that, 
if he could be persuaded to change his opinions, the Eefor- 
mation would receive a blow from which it would never 
recover. He was therefore kept for months in prison ; 
persons were sent to tamper with him ; and promises of 
life were held out if he would recant. Overcome at last 
by long imprisonment, by the horrors of the stake, and 
by love of life, he consented to retract his opinions. But 
this did not save him. The queen hated him for his part 
in her mother's divorce ; Pole was anxiously waiting to 



234 HISTORY OF EKGLAND. 

become his successor in the see of Canterbury ; and, there- 
fore, die he must. On the day of execution, permission 
was given to the archbishop to make a public denial of his 
faith ; but to the surprise and dismay of his enemies, he said 
that his recantation was caused through fear, and that he 
bitterly repented his weakness. Cranmer was then hurried 
to the spot already consecrated by the deaths of Eidley and 
Latimer. When fastened to the stake, he said, * This was 
the hand that wrote it, therefore it shall suffer first punish- 
ment.' The wood was dry and well laid ; the fire rapidly 
spread, and the martyr was soon dead. Before 
- * ^ ' the flames touched his body, his right hand Avas 
seen extended in the fire, and he never flinched 
nor cried. 
During the three years' persecution, nearly 300 persons 
suffered at the stake, besides those who were punished by 
imprisonments, tortures, and fines. The bishops' prisons 
Avere crowded with poor men and women, who wxre 
treated like dogs. ' They Avere beaten, they were starved, 
they were flung into dark, fetid dens, where rotting straw 
was their bed, their feet were fettered in the stocks, and 
their clothes were their only covering in the cold winter 
months ; while the Avretches who died in their misery were 
flung out into the fields where none might bury them.' 
These atrocities turned the hearts of the people from a 
religion Avhich could encourage such inhumanity, and paved 
the way for the restoration of the Reformed Church. Every 
martyrdom was more effective than a hundred sermons 
against popery. The spectators withdrew to their homes, 
struck by a faith that could defy the horrors of the stake, 
and full of indignation at the cruelty of the persecutors. 
Some say that Cardinal Pole Avas opposed to these bar- 
barities, but it is a remarkable fact that, if Smithfield be 
excepted, the most frightful scenes in this cruel period 
Avere seen at Canterbury, of which diocese he Avas arch- 
bishop. 

Many of the Reformers sought refuge on the Continent, 
chiefly at Frankfort and Geneva. They returned home in 
the following reign, and founded the sect of the Puritans. 



MARY I. 235 

War with France. Loss of Calais. Death of the 

Queen. 

Philip did not remain a year in England after his 
marriage. He was never at home here. He disliked the 
country, and the people disliked' him, and he was therefore 
glad to get away. Shortly after his departure, the Emperor 
Charles V. abdicated, and he became King of Spain, under 
the tide of Philip H. Two years afterwards, he returned 
to England for the purpose of persuading the queen to join 
him in the war with France. The treaty of marriage had 
stipulated that England should not fight with France in 
the cause of Spain ; but Mary, anxious to please her 
husband, did her best to help him. The Government 
opposed the undertaking, and would most probably have 
succeeded in its opposition had not France given some 
cause of offence. The French court thought that by 
keeping Mary in alarm at home, the less likely she would 
be to join in the war. Some English exiles in Paris 
were, therefore, encouraged to make a descent upon 
England. Sir Thomas StaiFord, grandson of that Duke of 
Buckingham who had been put to death under Henry 
VIII., set out from the Seine with two ships weU manned, 
surprised Scarborough Castle, and sent a proclamation 
throughout Yorkshire calling upon the people to rise in 
behalf of English liberty. In two days, Stafford and his 
companions were prisoners, and thirty-one of them were put 
to death. War was then declared against France, and a force 
of 7,000 men was sent to join the Spaniards in the Nether- 
lands. Two days before their arrival, the Spaniards gained 
a decisive victory over the French at St. Quentin, and the 
allied forces afterwards stormed and sacked the town. 
(August 1557.) In the following winter, the Duke of 
Guise suddenly attacked Calais, and took it after 
a siege of eight days. The town on the land -ickq' 
side was protected by marshes which, by sluices, 
could be put under water at high tide. It was 
thought so well defended that it was customary to with- 
draw a portion of the garrison in the winter months. The 



236 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

French, aware of this, surprised the place with an army of 
30,000 men, and thus took in eight days what cost 
Edward III. a siege of eleven months. The loss of Calais 
caused grief and shame in England. For 200 years and 
more, it had given to the English kings an easy entrance 
into France, and was called the 'brightest jewel in the 
English crown.' 

Mary's health was failing fast when the disgraceful 
news of this loss reached her. She was affected to tears, 
and said that when she was dead * Calais ' would be 
found written on her heart. Her body was afflicted with 
dropsy, and her mind was saddened by disappointment. 
Deserted by her husband, hated by her subjects, tormented 
by disease, her latter days were full of bitterness. She 
died of a lingering fever, after a short reign of five years, 
and was buried in Westminster Abbey. (November 1558.) 
No sovereign ever ascended the throne with greater popu- 
larity than Mary ; but her obstinate, bigoted character, her 
cruel measures in favour of popery, turned the love of the 
people into hatred, and she went down to the grave un- 
wept and childless, leaving in the memory of the nation 
the undying name of ' Bloody Mary.' Cardinal Pole, her 
kinsman and chief adviser, died on the same day. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

The first commercial treaty with Eussia was made in 
this ^ reign. Coaches are said to have first appeared in 
England about the year 1555. 



ELIZABETH, 



237 



ELIZABETH. 
Born 1533 A.B. Began to Eeign 1558 A.D. Died 1603 A.D. 



Elizabeth's Accession. 
Completion of the Eeformation. 
Mary Queen of Scots. 
Conspiracies in favour of Mary. 
The Spanish Armada. 



Eebellion in Ireland. 
Execution of Essex. 
Death and Character ^f Eliza- 
beth. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



Elizabeth's Accession. Completion of the Reformation. 

Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne Boleyn, succeeded her 
sister. She was living at Hatfield when iKaxy died, nominally 
free, but in reality a prisoner. Her accession was hailed 
with the greatest delight. Joy-bells answered from steeple 
to steeple, bonfires blazed in every open spot, and festive- 
boards filled the streets. Yet there were many difiicultiea 
in her way. The clerical party, knowing her leaning to 
the Eeformation movement, looked with greater favour 
upon the claims of Mary Queen of Scots ; the Pope refused 
to acknowledge her title ; and Philip of Spain expected 
her to act according to his will. The King of France, too, 
decided against her claims, and persuaded Mary of Scots 
to take the arms and style of Queen of England. The 
Archbishop of York, alarmed at her religious opinions, 
refused to perform the ceremony of coronation, and the duty 
was discharged by the Bishop of Carlisle. (January 13, 
1559.) There was, besides, a war going on with 
France and Scotland; the Treasury was empty, and the 
nation in debt. Elizabeth retained in her service many 
of the members of the late Government, but she added 
others with views hke her own, and upon whom she 
could depend. Of these, Sir Nicholas Bacon, fathei' of 



238 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND . 

the great Lord Bacon, and Sir William Cecil, afterwards 
Lord Burleigh, were the most distinguished. To Cecil's 
faithful service of forty years as First Minister of the Crown 
much of the glory of Elizabeth's reign is due. As there 
was enough to do at home, peace was made with France 
and Scotland. 

One of the first acts of the queen was to recall the exiles 
and set free those imprisoned for religion. By proclama- 
tion she forbade preaching without a special license, and 
the elevation of the host; and granted the use of the 
Litany, <Ahe Lord's Prayer, the Creed, and the Gospels, in 
English. When Parliament met, early in 1559, the supre- 
macy of the crown was restored, and religious matters were 
brought into the same state as they were under Edward VI. 
The second prayer-book of that king was revised and 
published ; the forty-two articles of religion were reduced 
to thirty-nine, and a second book of homilies issued. The 
use of the English service-book was enforced by 
1559 an Act of Uniformity, and a court of High Com- 
A.D. mission was formed for the management of 

Church matters. 
The Act of Uniformity forbade all worship which was not 
in accordance with the Liturgy of the Church of England, 
under pain of forfeiting goods and chattels for the first 
offence, of a year's imprisonment for the second, and of im- 
prisonment for life for the third. It also imposed a fine of 
one shilling on everyone that should absent himself from 
the Established Church on Sunday and holidays. 

Thus the Eeformation was again the law of England, 
and the work of Pole and Mary faded away. * The nuns 
and monks were scattered once more, the crucifixes came 
down from the rood-lofts, the Maries and Johns from their 
niches, and in Smithfield market, at the crossways and 
street comers, blazed into bonfires, as in the old days of 
Cromwell.' Such was the way in which the Reformation 
was received in the great toAvns and seaports ; but more 
than one-half the population, chiefly the rural portion, were 
still in favour of the superstitious usages of their fore- 
fathers. 



ELIZABETH. 239 

These changes were not carried out without much oppo- 
sition. The clergy in Convocation protested against the 
Act of Supremacy, and the bishops in the House of Lords 
argued against it with all their might. They also opposed 
the reformed faith in all its most important points. All 
the bishops, excepting the bishop of LlandafF, refused the 
oath of supremacy, and were, consequently deprived of 
their sees ; but of the inferior clergy, amounting to about 
10,000, only about 180 declined to submit to the new order 
of things. 

Five of Edward's bishops outlived Mary's persecution. 
Four of these, among whom was the venerable Miles 
Coverdale, consecrated Matthew Parker Archbishop of 
Canterbury, and soon after, all the vacant sees were again 
filled up. For eleven years, the friends and the enemies 
of the Reformation met together for public worship in the 
same sacred building ; but in 1570, Pope Pius V. excom- 
municated Elizabeth, and then those devoted to the Romish 
system withdrew from the English Church, and formed 
a distinct dissenting body, which is distinguished by the 
name Roman Catholic. The English Church, on the 
other hand, is sometimes called Protestant, in contradis- 
tinction to papal. For many years the Roman Catholic 
dissenters greatly troubled the Government by plotting to 
upset its authority, and they thus brought upon them- 
selves very severe treatment. During Elizabeth's reign 
about 200 of them were put to death for treasonable prac- 
tices. 

The papists were not the only faction that troubled the 
National Church. During the Marian persecution, about 
800 persons sought refuge in Germany and Switzerland, 
and there imbibed the views of the foreign Reformers. On 
the accession of Elizabeth, they returned to England 
bitterly opposed to everything that reminded them of the 
unreformed Church. They objected to the surplice, 
kneeling at the Communion, the sign of the cross in 
baptism, the use of sponsors, the ring in marriage, govern- 
ment by bishops, stained windows, organs, and chanting. 
They professed to aim at a purer form of worship, and, 



240 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

on this account, were called Puritans. In 1566, they 
began to absent themselves from the parish churches, and 
hold their meetings in private houses. Many of the clergy 
adopted Puritan views, but for a time they were left un- 
molested. At length the Act of Uniformity was enforced 
with greater rigour, and those who refused to conform 
were deprived of their livings. Hence the Puritans re- 
ceived the name of Nonconformists. The queen disliked 
this party very much, though some of her most favoured 
counsellors secretly encouraged them. The law showed 
them no favour ; they were fined, imprisoned, and exiled ; 
but no severity could break their spirit. They increased 
so rapidly that before the death of Elizabeth they became 
a powerful and influential party in the House of Commons. 
The Puritans were distinguished by their love of civil 
liberty, and we owe much to their dogged opposition to 
undue regal power. 

Mary dueen of Scots. 

Mary Queen of Scots married the Dauphin of France, 
who became king in 1559. Scotland vfas then under the 
government of Mary of Guise, widow of James V., who 
maintained her authority by the help of French soldiers. 
The Queen of Scots, as the descendant of Margaret, eldest 
daughter of Henry VII., was the next heir to the English 
throne ', and on Elizabeth's accession she and her husband 
took the arms and title of Queen of England ; thus denying 
Elizabeth's right. When Mary's husband became King of 
France, he still called himself King of England. Elizabeth, 
therefore, regarded him and his wife as her mortal enemies, 
against whom it was necessary to take guai'd. Scotland at 
this time was in a very disturbed state, on account of the Ee- 
formation movement, which had made great progress under 
John Knox. In that country the Reformers called themselves 
the ' Congregation of the Lord,' in contradistinction to the 
Established Church, which they called the * Congregation 
of Satan.' Their cause became so powerful that the regent 
sought aid from France to suppress it. A civil war arose 



ELIZAEETH. 241 

in consequence, and the ' Lords of the Congregation,' as the 
nobles who joined the movement called themselves, applied 
to Elizabeth for help. Much as she disliked the Scotch 
Reformers, the necessity of crushing the French poAver in 
Scotland compelled her to assist them. An English fleet 
was sent to the Forth ; the French shut themselves up in 
Leith, and weje at last forced to surrender. A treaty was 
made at Edinburgh, by which the French were to leave the 
country, and the Queen and King of France and Scotland 
were to abstain from taking the arms or title of England. 
(Jujy 6, 1560.) The Scotch then established the Presby- 
terian system of religion. 

Mary's husband, Francis II., died the same year, and 
she returned to Scotland in 1561. Four years afterwards, 
she married her cousin. Lord Darnley, son of the Earl of 
Lennox, the next heir after Mary to the English crown. 
Elizabeth was much offended at this marriage. Darnley's 
character by no means corresponded to his handsome 
person. He was scarcely fit for his high position, and his 
weakness and vice made it necessary for his wife to treat 
him with some reserve. Enraged at this neglect, he vented 
his rage upon all in the queen's favour. Mary had a 
secretary, named David Rizzio, a Piedmontese by birth, 
the son of a music- teacher. Darnley became jealous of 
this man's influence, and formed a plan to put him to 
death. One evening, when the queen was supping in 
private with Eizzio and other servants, at Holyrood Palace, 
Darnley and some lords rushed into the chamber, dragged 
the secretary into an ante-room, and despatched him with 
fifty-six wounds, (1566.) For this cruel outrage and crime, 
Mary never forgave her husband. He threatened to leave 
the country, but was prevented by his wife's apparent 
reconciliation. About this time he became seriously ill, 
and was placed in a solitary house near Edinburgh, called 
the Kirk of Field, where he was attended by his queen. 
One night she retired to the palace of Holyrood, and 
shortly after, the citizens of Edinburgh were roused from 
sleep by a loud explosion. In the morning the house of 
Kirk of Field was found a heap of ruins, and some forty 



242 HISTOEY OP ENGLAND. 

yards away lay the body of Darnley, without any marks 
of fire or violence. (February 9, 1567.) The Earl of Both- 
well, who was deep in Mary's confidence, was suspected of 
the murder; but he was too powerful to be brought to 
trial. Within a month, Bothwell carried off the queen to 
Dunbar, where they were married. The marriage of Mary 
with the man believed to be the murderer t^her husband 
caused a burst of indignation throughout Scotland, and a 
confederacy was at once formed against her. At Carberry 
Hill, near Edinburgh, she was taken prisoner by the army 
of the confederacy, but Bothwell made good his escape to 
Dunbar, and thence fled to Denmark. Public opinion 
charged the queen with being a party to her husband's 
murder, and in Edinburgh her life was in danger. Im- 
prisoned in Lochleven Castle, she was compelled to resign 
the crown in favour of her infant son, and to appoint her 
natural brother, the Earl of Murray, regent. Ten months 
afterwards, she escaped from confinement, and was^soon at 
the head of 6,000 men ; but the regent marched against 
her, and routed her forces at Eangside, near Glasgow. 
(1568.) The defeated princess fled to the south, took boat 
at Galloway, and landed at Workington, in Cumberland. 

Elizabeth was now in a difl&culty. If she allowed the 
royal fugitive to leave the country, the Eomanists would 
make her the centre of their plots against England; if she 
remained, Elizabeth could not be indifferent to the great 
crimes laid to her charge. It was therefore determined to 
keep her under restraint at Bolton Castle, and to open a 
court at York for her trial. Commissioners met for this 
purpose; proofs of guilt were strong, but the conference 
came to nothing decisive. Elizabeth and her Privy Coun- 
cil, however, were convinced of her guilt, and she was 
refused admission to the English court. She was placed 
under the care of the Earl of Shrewsbury at Tutbury, 
in Staffordshire, and afterwards removed to Sheffield 
Castle. 



ELIZABETH. 243 



Conspiracies in favour of Mary Queen of Scots. 

• 
From the beginning of Elizabeth's reign, England was 

in danger from the plots of the great Eoman Catholic 
powers. There was one source of safety in the jealousies 
that existed between France and Spain, and there was 
another in the spread of the Reformation on the Continent. 
In the Netherlands, Spain had its hands full in keeping 
down Protestantism, and France was torn by civil strife. 
In the latter country, Protestants, under the name of Hu- 
guenots, and Romanists were in open war. Elizabeth sided 
with the Huguenots, and their leader, the Prince of Conde, 
put Havre into her hands, (October 1562.) In the fol- 
lowing year the civil war was brought to an end by the 
promise of toleration to all parties, and the English were 
driven out of Havre. The Romanists thought that, if 
Protestantism could be destroyed in England, it could 
easily be stamped out elsewhere ; but Elizabeth was the 
great stumbling-block. If she could be removed, and a 
Roman Catholic be puf in her place, success was certain. 
The next heir to the throne was Mary of Scotland, a Roman 
Catholic, and for her accession papists abroad and at home 
longed and plotted. Her misconduct in Scotland, how- 
ever, put a stop for a time to the intrigues of her friends. 
The remembrance of her faults soon passed away, and she 
became once more the centre of Romanist conspiracies. 
In the year following her arrival in England a plot was 
set on foot by the Roman Catholic nobles to set her free, 
and to restore their religion by placing her on the throne. 
The Duke of Norfolk, though a Protestant, was involved 
in this conspiracy. It was proposed that he should marrj^ 
Mary ; but there were plots within plots, and so skil- 
fully laid, that several of Elizabeth's Council encouraged 
the marriage, with the view of ruining Cecil, the chief 
minister of the crown. The conspiracy was detected, 
and the Duke of Norfolk was sent to the Tower. The 
earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland attempted 
to raise the northern counties, but on the appearance of 



244 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

the royal forces they fled to Scotland. About 

1569 600 of their followers were strung up by martial 

A.D. law in the towns and villages of Yorkshire and 

Durham. 
The Duke of Norfolk, on promises of good conduct, was 
soon set free. In the following year, Pope Pius V. issued 
a bull of excommunication against Elizabeth, and absolved 
her subjects from their oaths of allegiance. Deep-laid 
schemes were at once set on foot to dethrone her. Nor- 
folk was to marry the Queen of Scots, the Spaniards, 
under the Duke of Alva, were to land at Harwich, and the 
whole country was to rise in arms. Mere chance revealed 
the conspiracy. A Shrewsbury merchant was about re- 
turning home from London, when one of Norfolk's servants 
asked him to take charge of a bag of silver, and deliver it 
to the duke's agent in Shropshire. The man consented; 
but on the way, the weight of the bag struck him as 
strange. He opened it, and found 6001. in gold, and a 
letter in cypher. He immediately returned, and gave the 
bag and its contents to Cecil, then Lord Burleigh. The 
^P-tjn ^^^^ of ^^6 plo* was thus discovered. Norfolk, 
^ ^ again sent to the Tower, was executed for high 

treason. 
The Earl of Northumberland soon after fell into the 
power of Elizabeth, and met with a similar fate. 

These summary measures checked for a time the 
treasonable practices of the Eoman Catholic nobility. The 
next danger came from the plots of the Jesuits. With them 
nothing should stand in the way of papal triumph. Whole- 
sale massacres and assassinations should remove the enemies 
of Rome. In Paris, on the feast of St. Bartholomew, 1 572, 
^00 noblemen and gentlemen, and 10,000 of lower rank, 
were massacred in cold blood, because they were Huguenots. 
Other towns in France followed the cruel example, and 
thus Rome triumphed in blood, and returned thanks to God 
for so glorious a victory. After this, another champion of 
Protestantism, in the person of the Prince of Orange, was 
removed by assassination. Elizabeth alone remained to be 
destroyed. A Jesuit plot for her destruction and a Spanish 



ELIZABETH. 245 

invasion of England was discovered by the capture of a 
vessel in the Channel having on beard two Popish priests. 
(November 1584.) Papers on their person revealed the 
wicked design. Severe laws, in consequence, were imme- 
diately passed against the Jesuits. Members of this order 
and all popish priests were ordered to leave the kingdom 
within forty days. If found after that time, they were to 
suifer as traitors; and all persons who harboured them 
were to be hanged as felons. Several afterwards suffered 
for violation of this law. 

In the year 1586, a priest named Ballard came to 
England in the disguise of a soldier, and set on foot another 
conspiracy for the murder of Elizabeth and the liberation 
of the Queen of Scots. The plot was eagerly joined by 
Anthony Babington, a young gentleman of Derbyshire, 
who found willing accomplices among several sworn 
servants of Elizabeth's court. Six of these were ready to 
kill their royal mistress whenever the signal should be 
given. A correspondence was carried on with the Scottish 
Queen at Chartley Manor, through a brewer of Burton, 
who supplied the household v/ith ale. A water-tight box of 
wood, containing letters, was placed in the cask ordered for 
the use of Mary's ladies and secretaries. But "Walsingham, 
Elizabeth's Secretary of State, was informed by his spies of 
all that Avas going on. The whole correspondence passed 
through his hands ; and when the plot was ripe, the conspi- 
rators were immediately seized, and fourteen put to death.. 

It was resolved to put the Queen of Scots on her trial 
for her share in Babington's conspiracy. She was removed 
to Fotheringay Castle, in Northamptonshire, where a royal 
commission, consisting of peers and privy councillors, was 
Bent to try her. At first she refused to acknowledge the 
authority of the court, but at last she consented to answer. 
She denied the charge of abetting the queen's murder. 
The evidence against her was strong : there were the con- 
fessions of Babington and her two private secretaries, and 
her own letters. The Commissioners met again in the 
Star Chamber at London, and there pronounced sentence 
of death against the Queen of Scots, (October 25, 1586.) 
12 



246 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

A Parliament was immediately summoned, the sentence 
against Mary was ratified, and a petition presented to 
Elizabeth for its execution. In the meantime, Henry III. 
of France, influenced by the papacy and the court of Spain, 
pleaded earnestly for the life of the condemned queen. 
Her son, James VI. of Scotland, was not so urgent ; and his 
efforts to save his mother were not very active. Elizabeth 
hesitated for some months to sign the death-warrant. 
She knew that public interest required the execution of 
Mary, but she wished to escape the responsibility of her 
death. England was in a fever of excitement : rumours 
of conspiracies, treachery, and invasion were disturbing 
society to its depths ; remonstrances were presented to 
Elizabeth concerning her hesitation. At length, she gave 
' private orders to her secretary, Davidson, to draw up the 
warrant, which she signed, and sent to the Chancellor to 
receive the great seal. Next day she recalled her orders 
to Davidson ; and on being told that the warrant had passed 
the Chancellor, she seemed greatly displeased. The Council 
then decided to trouble the queen no longer, and the war- 
rant was soon on its way to Fotheringay, Avhere the earls of 
Shrewsbury and Kent were to see it executed. A scaiFold 
covered with black cloth was erected in the hall of the 
castle. About 300 knights and gentlemen of the county 
were admitted to witness the execution. At eight o'clock 
on a February morning, Mary Stuart, dressed in black 
satin, appeared on the scaffold. After a short time spent 
in devotion, her attendants removed the black robe; 
under the robe was a dress of crimson velvet ; and then 
the unhappy queen stood out on the dark background 
blood-red from head to foot. The executioner did his 
work in two strokes. As the streaming head was held up 
to the spectators, the Dean of Peterborough exclaimed, 
' So perish all enemies of the Queen ! ' ' Amen ! ' was the 
answer from those present. Thus perished Mary 
^I^'s7 Queen of Scots, in the forty-fifth year of her age 
and the nineteenth of her captivity in England. The 
body was buried at Peterborough ; but it was after- 
wards removed to Westminster Abbey by her son, James I. 



ELIZABETH. 247 



The Spanish Armada. 

Philip II. of Spain had long meditated the invasion of 
England. Not only as a papist was he enraged at the suc- 
cess of the English Eeformation, but he was also grievously- 
provoked by the attacks of English sailors on his treasure- 
ships, and by the aid Elizabeth gave to his rebellious sub- 
jects in the Low Countries. While English soldiers were 
fighting the Spaniards in the Netherlands, hardy sailors 
under Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake were 
scouring the seas in search of Spanish gaUeons. This 
was more than Philip could stand, and he determined 
to hurry on his preparations for the conquest of England. 
Francis Drake, one of the naval heroes of this reign, 
paid the coast of Spain a visit soon after the execu- 
tion of the Queen of Scots. In Cadiz harbour, more than 
one hundred ships were burnt, and large quantities of stores 
destroyed. The damage done by Drake was soon repaired, 
and there was collected in the Tagus a fleet of which the 
world had never seen the like. Spain was roused to en- 
thusiasm at the idea of crushing the heretical nation which 
had dared to defy its power. Every pulpit in the land 
proclaimed a crusade against England, and every noble 
family sent one or more of its sons to join so pious an 
undertaking. Confident of success, the Spaniards called 
their fleet the Invincible Armada. It consisted of 129 large 
fighting ships, armed with 2,430 cannon of brass and iron, 
and manned by 8,000 sailors. There were, besides, 19,000 
soldiers, 1,000 gentlemen volunteers, 600 priests, servants, 
&c., and 2,000 galley slaves. The Duke of Medina- 
Sidonia was placed in command. The admiral sailed from 
the Tagus, May 29, 1588, with orders to proceed direct to 
Calais, to receive on board the Prince of Parma with an 
army of 30,000 men. Off Finisterre a storm dispersed the 
fleet, and it was obliged to put into Corunna to refit. The 
second attempt to sail was more successful, and in the 
month of July the Armada appeared off the Lizard. 

To oppose this formidable armament, the English could 



248 



HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 



only muster 140 ships of very small size. Of these only 
38 belonged to the royal navy ; and there were only 13 of 
these above 400 tons burthen. The rest of the fleet con- 
sisted of merchantmen of all sorts and sizes, supplied by the 
seaports and nobility. Though the ships were small, they 
were manned by 14,000 daring sailors, and commanded by 
brave hearts. Lord Howard of Effingham was placed in 
chief command, and under him served Drake, Hawkins, 
and Frobisher — the most renowned seamen in Europe. 
On land an army of 70,000 raw levies were collected 
together, but by no means a match for the disciplined 




English War Ship and Spanish Galleon of the time. 



troops of Spain. This army was arranged in three 
divisions; 20,000 men guarded the southern coast; a 
similar number was told off to oppose the landing, while 
30,000 remained at Tilbury to protect London. Elizabeth 
did her best to encourage the troops. She appeared on 
horseback in the camp, and exhorted the men to remember 
their duty, saying that she, though a woman, would lead 
them to battle, and die rather than yield. 



ELIZABETH. 249 

Lord Howard and Drake were in Plymoutli Sound with 
82 ships when the news came that the Spaniards were in 
the Channel. On the evening of July 19, beacons on the 
coast gave the signal that England's trial was at 
hand, and immediately men in every town and 1588 
village were hiu-rying to their posts. On the a.d. 
following afternoon, the Armada was seen off 
Plymouth in the form of a crescent, about seven miles 
in extent. The English admiral at once made sail, and 
followed in its wake. His orders were to avoid coming 
to close quarters, and attack the enemy at a distance. 
The size of the English snips was favourable to these 
tactics. The high-towered Spanish galleons moved slowly 
on the water, and were utterly helpless to meet the at- 
tacks of a swift-sailing fleet. Before they could turn to 
fire a broadside, the sharp English craft were away out of 
range. The huge lofty hulks of the Spanish ships offered 
a sure mark to the enemy, and, at the same time, sent 
their own shot far too high. The Spaniards were astonished 
and confounded by the manoeuvring and rapidity of fire. 
To every shot they sent, four were received in return. 
Flurried and surprised at such seamanship and artillery, 
they resolved to make the best of their way to Calais. For 
three days the pursuit continued up the Channel, the 
English daily increasing in numbers, and becoming more 
daring. Before Medina- Sidonia cast anchor off Calais, 
many a proud ship had been carried as prizes into English 
ports. While the Armada lay there, waiting for Parma's 
army. Lord Howard, one dark night, sent eight fire-ships 
amongst them. The Spaniards, in terror, cut their cables, 
and sailed out into the Cliannel, thinking to return to 
their anchorage in the morning. But they never saw their 
anchors again. The English ships were upon them with 
the light, and threw them into the wildest confusion. 
Driven in one upon the other, the Spanish vessels were 
utterly helpless. From morning to night they Avere torn 
and raked by the English guns ; twelve ships were sunk or 
captured ; the rest were rent and shattered, and only 
escaped total destruction by the failure of powder and shot 



250 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 

in the English fleet. The Spanish commander, driven into 
the North Sea, dared not face the foe again. Four 
thousand of his men were killed or drowned ; the decks 
were crowded with wounded ; his ships were pierced and 
torn in all directions, and there was nothing left but flight 
up the German Ocean, On they sailed to the north, pur- 
sued by the English as far as the Orkneys. Then storms 
and the dangers of unknown seas did their work of destruc- 
tion, and completed the ruin of the proud Armada. 
Wrecks covered the coasts of Norway, Scotland, and 
Western Ireland. Between the Giant's Causeway and 
Blasket Sound, 8,000 shipwrecked Spaniards were either 
drowned, or murdered by the Irish. Only 54 vessels in all 
ever reached Spain, and scarcely 10,000 men survived to 
tell the tale of English valour, and of the violence of the 
sea that washes the coasts of Britain. 

In the following year, an English squadron was sent to 
the coast of Spain under Drake and the Earl of Essex. 
The suburbs of Lisbon were captured, and the town o£ 
Vigo taken and burnt. In 1596, news came that Philip 
was preparing for a new invasion of England, when Effing- 
ham and Essex set sail for Spain, plundered Cadiz, and 
captured three ships of the rich Indian fleet. All real 
danger of invasion passed away with the destruction of the 
Armada, and England then began to take her place as 
mistress of the sea. 

Eebellion in Ireland. Execution of the Earl of Essex. 

After the Spanish quarrel had been settled, Elizabeth's 
attention was directed to Ireland. English authority was 
not very great in that country. The Irish never liked 
the. rule of England. The success of the Reformation in- 
creased this feeling, and made the people more popish and 
hostile than ever. English adventurers attempted to form 
settlements in the country from time to time, but in most 
cases the enterprise, after much cruelty to the natives, ended 
in bloodshed and failure. The most powerful Irish leader 
was Hugh O'Neal. Elizabeth made him Earl of Tyrone, 
with a view of winning him over to her side. But the 



ELIZABETH. .251 

earl loved independence and the liberty to do as he liked 
better than quiet submission to the Queen of England. 
He therefore fomented disturbances and rallied the Irish 
chieftains in his cause, and applied to the court of Spain 
for arms and help. At length he broke out into open rebel- 
lion, and defeated the English forces at Blackwater, leaving 
their commander and 1,500 men dead on the field. ^ ^qq 
The Irish were in high glee at this success, and . .^ 
looked upon Tyrone as the deliverer of their coun- 
try. The English Council, thinking it time to take vigorous 
measures, sent the Earl of Essex to Ireland as lord-lieu- 
tenant, with 18,000 men. In 1599, he landed in Dublin, 
but the campaign was spent in petty expeditions, and at 
the close, without having achieved anything, he found his 
army reduced to 4,000 men. Instead of crushing Tyrone, 
he began to negotiate with him. Elizabeth was indignant 
at the conduct of Essex, and ordered him to stop in Ire- 
land till further orders. Fearing the queen's displeasure, 
he hurried to London to explain his conduct. He was 
coldly received, and committed to the custody of the lord- 
keeper. He soon regained his liberty, but not the queen's 
favour. He was forbidden the court, and the monopoly of 
sweet wines was taken from him. In vexation and despair, 
he spoke harshly of his royal mistress, and began to form 
conspiracies against her. He plotted to seize the palace, 
and compel the queen to dismiss her adviser, and settle a 
new plan of government. Eelying upon the aid of the 
citizens of London, he sallied forth with about 200 
attendants, and attempted to raise the City. The attempt 
ended in utter failure. He was brought to trial on the 
charge of high treason, and was beheaded in the ^- ^ 
Tower. It is said that his life might have been 

. A.D. 

saved, if a ring, which had been given him by the ' * ♦ 
queen to be used in any time of danger, had reached her 
hands. The ring was given to the Countess of Notting- 
ham, to be forwarded to Elizabeth, but this lady, from 
malice, neglected to discharge her commission. 

The rebellion in Ireland was suppressed in one cam- 
paign by Lord Mountjoy, the successor of Essex. A 



252 HISTOEY OF ENG^LAND. 

Spanish expedition of forty-five ships arrived at Kin sale 
too late to be of any use, and was forced to surrender. 
Tyrone was pardoned, but his lands were taken from him. 
(1602.) 

Death and Character of Elizabeth. 

After the death of Essex, Elizabeth fell into a deep 
melancholy. She was so overwhelmed with grief as to re- 
fuse food, sitting for days and nights on the floor, without 
changing her clothes. Some thought that the execution of 
her favourite was the cause of her dejection, while others 
said it was the natural result of disease and old age. Her 
bodily and mental strength became weaker day by day, 
Afler expressing the wish that James VI. of Scotland 
should be her successor, she fell into a sleep of some hours, 
and died peacefully at Eichmond, in the seventieth year of 
her age and the forty-fifth of her reign. (March 24, 1603.) 

Elizabeth's character was marked by many virtues. Her 
faults, too, were many ; but as a queen, she has had few 
equals among the sovereigns of England. She was active, 
bold, and imperious; her temper was violent, and, in this 
respect, she resembled her father. Many of her acts were 
despotic, but she possessed the wisdom of avoiding quarrels 
with her parliaments. Vanity was one of her weak points. 
When old and wrinkled, she listened with pleasure to the 
flatteries of courtiers, and nothing pleased her better than 
a well-timed compliment from her seeming admirers. She 
deserves, however, all praise in the choice of her counsellors. 
To this wise selection it is owing that her reign forms one 
of the most brilliant periods in English history. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

This reign is distinguished for its literature and its mari- 
time enterprise. The persecution of Protestants on the Conti- 
nent brought to England many refugees who, being skilful in 
art and manufacture, made great improvements in weaving, 
dyeing, and the dressing of cloth. Many places now began 
to give signs of future greatness. Birmingham and Sheffield 



ELIZABETH. 



253 



were already famous for hardware, and Leeds and Man- 
chester were rising into importance as manufacturing towns. 
London grew so rapidly that a proclamation was issued 
forbidding any further building. In 1589, the stocking- 
frame was invented by the Rev. Mr. Lee, of Cambridge. 
Up to this time, people wore cloth hose. Silk stockings 
are said to have been first worn by Elizabeth. Tea was 
imported from China by the Dutch, and potatoes and 
tobacco were brought from America by Raleigh, Drake, or 
Hawkins. Pocket-watches came from Germany. The 
manufacture of paper from rags was begun at Dartford, in 
Kent. This reign is also distinguished for the first poor- 
law, the beginning of the African slave-trade, the estab- 
lishment of the East India Company, and the colonisation 
of Virginia by Raleigh. 




Lady's Costume of the period. 



254 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE TUDOR PERIOD. 



Government. Food. Dress. Dwellings. Amusements. 
National Industry. Literature. 

Government. — The government of the Tudors was more 
arbitrary tlian that of the Plantagenets. All the members 
of this house were distinguished for their courage and 
strong will ; and, in consequence of these characteristics, 
they often overstepped the bounds of their rights, and in- 
vaded those of their subjects. But they had the wisdom 
to know when and where to stop. Though high-spirited 
and hot-tempered, they were discreet enough to avoid pro- 
voking the nation to dangerous opposition. The House of 
Conmions increased in power in this period, especially 
towards its close. Under Henry VIII. the Commons grew 
in importance, though they were far from independent. 
Under Edward VI. they became bolder, and this spirit in- 
creased in the following reigns, till in Elizabeth's time they 
stoutly refused to the queen the right of granting mono- 
polies, and compelled her to yield to their wishes. The 
parliaments of this period were, however, on the Avhole, 
very servile. Many of the peers were new creations, and 
therefore bound to the sovereign by ties of gratitude. 
Many of the House of Commons represented towns under 
the influence of the crown. During the reigns of the last 
three Tudors, ninety-eight pocket boroughs were created or 
restored, and from these places men entered Parliament to 
carry out and support the sovereign's wishes. Hence it is 
not difficult to account for the high-handed manner in 
which Parliament was often treated in this period. 

Food. — The upper classes took breakfast at eight, dinner 
at twelve, and supper at six. Dinner, then as now, was 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE TUDOR PERIOD. 255 

the chief meal, when large joints of beef and mutton, roast 
or boiled, and flagons of nut-brown ale, covered the table. 
Even court ladies commenced and ended the day with 
steaks and copious draughts of ale. The modern beverages 
of tea and coffee were then unknown. Meat and bread 
were presented upon the point of a knife, and fingers still 
did duty for forks. During the greater part of the year 
salt meat was used, on account of the scarcity of pasturage. 
People near the seacoast had the luxury of fresh fish, but 
those inland could not enjoy this privilege. The hat was 
generally worn at table. 

While the rich were supplied with wheaten bread, the 
poorer classes were content with bread made of barley or 
rye, and, in times of scarcity, they were glad to get it 
made of beans, peas, or oats. In the reign of Henry VIII., 
beef and pork Avere a halfpenny a pound — mutton was 
three farthings. The butchers of London sold penny 
pieces of beef for the relief of the poor — every piece two 
pounds and a half, sometimes three pounds. Strong beer, 
such as is now sold at eighteenpence a gallon, was then 
a penny a gallon ; and table-beer less than a halfpenny. 
French and German wines were eightpence the gallon ; 
Spanish and Portuguese wines, a shilling. 

Towards the close of the period, the use of tobacco 
became very general. A good dinner was incomplete 
without a pipe. 

Dress. — Among the upper classes, fashions were con- 
tinually changing. The sixteenth century is distinguished 
for the slashing style of dress — large gashes in the sleeve, 
through which the white linen was puiFed out. These slits 
were tied with points, to prevent them opening too far. 
The hose, which formerly reached from the waist to the 
feet, was now separated into breeches and stockings. The 
usual dress of males was a close-fitting jacket, fastened 
round the waist by a belt. Over this hung a short cloak, 
which, in the case of rich men, was of bright- coloured 
velvet, superbly trimmed inside and out. Caps were of 
various shapes. They were ornamented with feathers and 
coloured bands. Gentlemen wore frills and ruffs of large 



256 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

size. A rapier and dagger completed the costume. The 
lower classes wore tunics and leather smallclothes. The 
hair was cut short and curled, or set up on end ; the beard 
was long and pointed. The dress of the yeomen of the 
queen's guard gives a very good idea of the costume of this 
period. The boys of Christ's Hospital School still wear the 
style of dress of the Tudor age. 

The most remarkable change in female costume w:as the 
introduction of the hoop, or farthingale, from Spain, for 
spreading the skirts. Another new fashion was the use of 
enormous ruffs of linen or cambric, which were first held 
out by pieces of wood or ivory, but in Elizabeth's time 
they were stiffened with starch introduced from Flanders. 
These ruffs increased to such a size that Elizabeth ordered 
persons to be stationed in London to cut down those ex- 
ceeding a certain height. Headdresses were of various 
shapes, and completely covered the hair, like a hood. 
False hair was fashionable with ladies, and at the close of 
the period red was the fashionable colour. Pearls were 
worn as ear-drops, and for necklaces. "Worsted stockings 
were first made in the time of Elizabeth, and soon took the 
place of cloth hose. A pair of silk stockings was considered 
worth presenting to the ' Maiden Queen.' A fashionable 
lady seldom moved abroad without a pocket looking-glass, 
or mirror, which she usually carried dangling at her side 
or set in her fan. 

Dwellings. — As the country settled down into peace and 
order, the residences of the nobility underwent a great 
change. Houses lost their military character, and the 
castle became a palace, or hall, or manor-house. They 
were quadrangular in shape, and contained large halls, long 
corridors with galleries above, and broad bay windows 
filled with glass. They had many gables, and ornamental 
groups of chimneys. The castle moat and loop-holed walls 
gave way to lawns, shrubberies, terraces, and avenues of 
stately trees. In the latter part of the period, the Gothic 
style of building became intermixed with the Italian, and 
received the name Elizabethan. The hall now served as 
an entrance, from which richly- decorated staircases led to 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE TUDOE PEKIOD. 267 

the corridors above. Brick and stone were commonly 
used for large buildings, though town-houses continued to 
be built chiefly of wood. Their fronts were elaborately 
carved, the upper stories projecting. In these dwellings, 
glass-windows were still uncommon; and when used, they 
were not made to open — ventilation, therefore, was bad. 
The poor still lived in houses made of wattles, plastered 
over with mud. 

Chimneys were now in general use in better-class 
houses. 

Furniture was still of a simple character. The floor 
was matted, or covered with rushes. Towards the close of 
the period carpets came into use, but chiefly as table- 
cloths. Bedding also improved. The straw pallet and 
coarse rug or sheet gave way to beds of down, woollen 
blankets, and linen sheets. The lower classes slept upon 
rough mats, or straw, with a log for a pillow ; and if a 
man could get a flock bed with a pillow of chafl*, he 
thought himself as lucky as a lord. Furniture was so 
scanty, that the nobility usually carried it about with them 
when they came to town. Before the time of Elizabeth, 
dishes and spoons were made of wood ; these were super- 
seded by pewter plates and tin spoons. Tapestry was still 
used to cover the walls of rooms. 

Amusements. — ^AU the old sports were still in vogue, 
excepting the tournament and hawking. Hunting was 
thoroughly enjoyed by both sexes. Bull and bear-baiting 
were favourite pastimes of the upper classes. The animal 
was fastened in an open space, and set upon by English 
bull- dogs. The highest ladies in the land delighted in 
this sport ; with Elizabeth it was an especial favourite. 
Horse-racing commenced as a regular amusement ; but, as 
it was free from gambling, it was greatly encouraged, to 
improve the breed of horses. The favourite country sports 
were archery, foot-races, and various games of ball. At 
the beginning of this period, particular attention was given 
to archery. All males, excepting the clergy and judges, 
between the ages of seven and sixty, were required by law 
to practise the bow at the village butts. The improvement 



258 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

of fire-arms, however, soon made the bow and arrow things 
of the past. 

Gorgeous pageants frequently enlivened " the court and 
the mansions of the great. "When Queen Elizabeth visited 
the Earl of Leicester at Kenilworth Castle, pageants of the 
most splendid description were given in her honour. 

Among in-door amusements, music and dancing were 
the most refined. The most common musical instruments 
were the cittern — a kind of guitar — the lute, and the vir- 
ginals — the original of the modern pianoforte. Dancing was 
the delight of all classes ; courtiers tripped their measures 
in torch-lighted halls, and country lads and lasses on the 
village-green. Other amusements were chess, dice, cards, 
and tables (now called backgammon). 

The drama took its rise in this period. TIiq mystery 
plays of the fifteenth century were followed by allegories, 
popular legends, and stories of English history. These 
performances were first held in booths and tents, with im- 
perfect costume. Eegular theatres were built in the reign 
of Elizabeth, but the stage, scenery, and dress were still 
rude. The performance usually began at one o'clock, and 
then a flag fluttered over the theatre during the continuance 
of the play. Women's part in the performance was taken 
by boys. Spectators of the better class sat on stools on 
the stage, and regaled themselves with ale and tobacco, 
while the common people sat in the pit, imitating the 
example of their betters. 

Church festivals and holidays were the favoiu-ite seasons 
for rustic sport and jollity, and on these occasions great 
licence was often taken. Christmas, with its yule-log and 
boar's head, when high and low feasted and made merry 
together in the great hall, was a joyous time. Every one 
went a-mumming ; those who could not get a mask sooted 
their faces. Every parish had its Lord of Misrule, who 
went about attended by mischief-loving rustics, decked out 
in gay scarfs and ribbons, or disguised in the skins of 
animals. May-day, with its pole on the village- green, 
where rustics danced and sported, was another season of 
merriment. Pageants and the morris-dance were associated 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE TUDOE PERIOD. 259 

with the May sports. Robin Hood and his famous 
Sherwood band were the favourite characters acted on 
these occasions. Another great festival was that of Mid- 
summer-eve. Then bonfires blazed in every town and 
village, and the young played and danced round them far 
into the night. 

National Industry. — This period is famous for its spirit 
of enterprise. To the sixteenth century we owe the rise 
of the royal navy and mercantile marine, and the founda- 
tion of our colonial empire. Henry YII. greatly encou- 
raged trade, and made several commercial treaties with 
foreign countries. The discovery of America and the 
passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope excited every- 
where a spirit of enterprise and activity. In England 
the old Viking spirit revived, and men, brave and bold, 
went out on the sea to seek their fortunes, as in the days of 
Guthrum and Hastings. Henry VIII. established the royal 
navy. He built numerous war- ships, captured others from 
the Scots, and prepared harbours for their accommodation. 
Besides this, he established a Navy Office, and founded 
the Trinity House for the improvement of home navigation. 
But the royal navy made no progress under Edward VI. 
and Mary, . though a slight improvement is observed 
under Elizabeth. Henry VIII. left a navy amounting in 
tonnage to 1,2,455 tons; at the end of the reign of Eliza- 
beth, it amounted to 17,110 tons. The largest ships 
measured 1,000 tons, and carried 840 men and 40 cannon. 
In time of war the royal' fleet was increased from the 
merchant service, but vessels of this class were very small. 
The largest merchantman which sailed from the port of 
London was no bigger than a modern collier brig. 

England had some share in the maritime enterprises of 
the age. In 1497 John Cabot, the Venetian, with his son 
Sebastian, sailed from Bristol to discover a north-west 
passage to India. He struck the American continent at 
Nova Scotia, sailed up the Greenland Sea till stopped by 
the ice, and then coasted down to Florida, a year before 
Columbus discovered the mainland of America. In 1530, 
Mr, William Hawkins sailed for the coast of Guinea, where 



260 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

he shipped gold-dust and ivory, and then crossed the 
Atlantic to Brazil. The chief of the latter country came 
back with him to England, but died on the return voyage. 
The Eeformation was beneficial to commercial enterprise. 
Men's energies increased as superstition decayed. Side by 
side with the change of religion English commerce made 
rapid strides. The Company of Merchant Adventurers, 
established in London, sent their ships to the Levant, 
explored the Baltic, and had their factors at Novogorod. 
In 1553, Sir Hugh Willoughby sailed into the Arctic Ocean 
to find a passage to India, and perished in the ice. In the 
same year, John Lok, an Englishman, visited the coast of 
Guinea, and commenced the African slave-trade by kid- 
napping five of the natives. These, however, were after- 
wards restored ; but in 1562, Sir John HaAvkins recom- 
menced the traffic in earnest. Sir Francis Drake was the 
first Englishman who sailed round the world — a Portuguese 
named Magellan first accomplished this feat, Drake has the 
honour of being second. Martin Frobisher explored the 
Arctic Ocean, and Sir Walter Raleigh made the first 
attempt at colonising the American coast. 

The number of vessels employed in honest trade was 
small. In the first half of Elizabeth's reign, the burthen 
of all the merchantmen engaged in ordinary commerce 
scarcely amounted to 50,000 tons. Piracy, or buccaneering, 
was more profitable, and too tempting to be resisted. The 
maritime discoveries of the age enticed daring men abroad 
to seek their fortune, and, as the times were very unsettled, 
they were not very particular about the means. A Spanish 
gold-laden ship, or a richly -freighted Flemish trader, Avas a 
prize too good to be missed ; and, as Spain was the home 
of the Inquisition, and the enemy of the Reformation, a 
Protestant Englishman regarded a Spanish vessel as his 
natural prey. Hence the Channel SAvarmed with pirate 
craft. 

Trade increased with the spirit of enterprise, and with 
the increase of trade there came an increase of population. 
At the close of the period the population of England 
amounted to 5,000,000. London increased from 50,000 



SOCIAL CONDITION OP THE TUDOK PERIOD. 261 

to 150,000. The towns next in importance were Bristol 
and Norwich. Some of the old towns fell into decay, 
while others, as Manchester and Birmingham, began to 
rise in importance. Liverpool, now the second town in 
the kingdom, was then an insignificant place, having only 
about 150 householders, 12 small vessels, and 75 sailors. 
Wool, w^ooUen cloths, and fustians, chiefly comprised the 
home trade of England. Goods from India, Persia, 
Turkey, Eussia, and the New World, were imported in 
large quantities. The establishment of the East India 
Company, in 1600, is an evidence of the increase of trade 
and mercantile activity under Elizabeth. 

The wages of artificers and labourers increased in this 
period. A carpenter, mason, &c. who in 1495 received 
from 56?. to 6cZ. a day, was paid Is. 2d. in 1601. Money, 
however, was less in value, but, on the whole, there was 
great improvement in the condition of the working classes. 

Condition of the Country. — Times of change are also 
times of hardship to many. Beggary and robbery pre- 
vailed to an alarming extent in the first half of the sixteenth 
century, though they were bad enough before. Edward III. 
and Eichard II. made laws to suppress the numerous 
beggars of their day. Henry YIII. tried to check the 
evil in his reign. No one was permitted to beg without a 
license. Sturdy and valiant beggars were to be whipped 
through the town at the cart's tail ; for the second offence 
tliey should lose the right ear, and for the third offence they 
should suffer death as felons. Scholars of the Universities of 
Oxford and Cambridge were allowed to beg by permission of 
the authorities of those institutions. During the first half 
of the sixteenth century, executions were very common. 
Gibbets with dangling felons were familiar sights in the 
highways and market-places. Under Henry YIII. 72,000 
persons were put to death as thieves and vagabonds ; in 
the reign of Elizabeth, the number decreased to 300 or 400 
a year. The government of the time acted upon the belief 
that it was better for ' a man not to live at all than to live 
a profitless and worthless life.' 

The public roads at this period were in a wretched state. 



262 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Travelling, in consequence, was rarely undertaken, except 
by the higher classes, or men compelled by business, and 
then it was always done on horseback. Carriages were not 
known till Mary's reign, and the badness of the roads pre- 
vented their use. Ladies rode on a pillion, behind their 
servants. A riding waggon, without springs, was intro- 
duced in Mary's reign, but its jolting received little favour. 
In 1564, a coach with springs was brought from Holland, 
which excited much curiosity and astonishment. ' Some 
said it was a great crab-shell, brought from China, and some 
imagined it to be one of the pagan temples in which the 
cannibals adored the devil.' Vehicles of this kind came 
into use as far as the roads permitted. Communication 
between one part of the country and another was not very 
frequent. There was no system of postage, and letters had 
to be sent by special messengers or chance opportunities. 

Learning and Literature. — The capture of Constanti- 
nople by the Turks, in 1453, drove many learned Greeks 
to the West of Europe. These exiles, by teaching and 
writing, drew men's attention to the ancient languages, and 
created a taste for their study. The desire thus implanted 
of studying Greek and Latin has caused the period to be 
distinguished as the Revival of Learning. The thirst for 
knowledge spread everywhere ; on the Continent, nearly 
forty universities were established, and in England 
many colleges and schools were founded. The fruits of 
this revival began to be felt in England in the sixteenth 
century. The knowledge of Greek enabled students to read 
the New Testament in the original language, and assisted 
the progress of the Reformation. On this account, the 
Greek Scriptures and Greek literature generally en- 
countered much opposition ; the * new learning ' and new 
opinions often went together, so much so that the Reformers 
were distinguished as ' men of the new learning.' It became 
fashionable at court to study the ancient languages. All 
the Tudor sovereigns, excepting Henry VII., were scholars. 
Henry VIII. spoke four languages, and was well read in 
theology and history. Elizabeth knew not only Latin, 
French, Spanish, and Italian, but also Greek thoroughly. 



SOCIAL CONDITION OP THE TUDOR PERIOD. 263 

Lady Jane Grey's last gift of a Greek Bible to her sister 
shows what her studies were. The old-fashioned people, 
however, who were content to run in the same groove as 
their fathers, looked suspiciously upon the educational 
movement. Knowledge, they thought, led men into 
heresy, and therefore it was better to remain in ignorance. 
So strong was this feeling in some quarters that, as late as 
the reign of Edward VI., there were peers of Parliament 
unable to read. 

This period is famous for the number of colleges and 
schools founded in England. Sixteen colleges in all were 
established at Oxford and Cambridge, and St. Paul's 
School, London, Christ's Hospital, Westminster School, and 
Rugby, besides very many others of lesser note, took their 
rise. All these educational establishments were intended 
for the poorer classes. The Universities were attended by 
the sons of yeomen, and poor deserving scholars were 
allowed to maintain themselves by begging. The rich 
eno-ajxed a tutor to teach their children at home. 

The old superstitions still exercised their influence, in 
spite of the zeal for knowledge and the spread of learning. 
The delusions of witchcraft, astrology, and alchymy, were 
thoroughly believed and trusted by all classes. Sudden 
sicknesses, plagues, storms, and accidents were ascribed to 
the tricks of witchcraft, and popular suspicion generally 
singled out some poor helpless old woman as the witch of 
the district. By astrology men pretended to foretell 
events by the stars. They were consulted by the highest 
in the land ; even Elizabeth put faith in their sayings. 
Alchymy had for its object the discovery of \hQ philosopher'' s 
stone and the elixir of life. The first was an imaginary 
substance, which could change all metals into gold ; and 
the last was a liquid which could give life and beauty. 
These superstitions and pursuits, though profitless to the 
men of that day, have been beneficial to us. "Witchcraft 
increased the knowledge of drugs and plants, so useful in 
medicine and the arts ; astrology laid the foundation of the 
noble science of astronomy ; and alchymy paved the way 
for the truths of chemistry. 



264 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

The language spoken and written in England under the 
first four Tudors was called Middle English. In the 
reign of Elizabeth, Modern English took its rise. Under the 
former, there was scarcely an English poet of any note ; but 
the impulse given by Chaucer began to be felt in Scotland, 
and the poet Dunbar was enriching his language with 
compositions worthy of any age. During the reign of 
Elizabeth, English literature burst forth in such splendour 
as to make the Elizabethan period the most illustrious in 
literary annals. The new learning then brought forth its 
fruits, and showed what the himian intellect could do Avhen 
freed from the bonds of bigotry and superstition. * The 
majesty of English prose was formed by the hand of 
Hooker; the harmony of English verse flowed from the 
lips of Spenser. The drama had then its first beginnings, 
and was perfected by the immortal genius of Shakespeare ; 
whilst Bacon opened up a new method of philosophy, 
whose practical fruits we may be said even now to gather.' 



Leading Authors of the Tudor Period. 

MIDDLE ENGLISH. 

SIR THOMAS MORE (1480-1535), Lord Chancellor after Wol- 
sey : a prose writer. Chief works : ' Utopia,' a fanciful scheme 
of gorernment ; ' The History of Edward V. and Eichard TIL' 
Beheaded by Henry VIII. 

HENRY HOWARD (1516-1547), Earl of Surrey: poet; intro- 
duced the Sonnet from Italy. The first English writer of blank 
verse ; refined the rude style of English poetry ; wrote some 
sonnets, and a translation of part of Virgil's JEneid. Beheaded 
by Henry VIII. 

"WILLIAM DTJNBAR, a poet: flourished about 1500-1513; called 
the Chaucer of Scotland. Chief poem : * The Thistle and the 
Eose,' written to commemorate the marriage of James IV. and 
Margaret Tudor. 

GAWIN DOUGLAS, Bishop of Dunkeld : a poet ; flourished about 
1510 A.D. The first translator into English of Virgil's -^neid; 
wrote two allegories, ' King Hart ' and the ' Palace of Honour.' 



LEADING AUTHOES OF THE TUDOE PEEIOD. 265 

WILLIAM TYNDALE (1485-1536), one of the earliest English 
Eeformers : translated the Bible. Burnt as a heretic in Elanders. 

MILES COVERDALE (1499-1580), Bishop of Exeter: trans- 
lated the whole Bible into English. 

EOGER ASCHAM (1515-1568), a student at Cambridge : Latin 
secretary to Edward VI. ; tutor to Queen Elizabeth ; author of 
* Toxophilus' and the ' Schoolmaster.' 

MODERN ENGLISH. 

SIR PHILIP SIDNEY (1554-1586): wrote pastoral poetry and 
prose. Chief work in poetry, ' Arcadia ;' in prose, * The Defence 
of Poesy.' Killed at the battle of Zutphen, in the Netherlands. 

EDMUND SPENSER (1553-1598), the second great English 
poet. Chief work : ' The Eaerie Queen,' an allegorical poem de- 
scribing the chief virtues personified by knights of romance ; 
each verse is written in a peculiar stanza of nine lines, now 
called the ' Spenserian.' 

CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE (1562-1 593), the greatest dramatist 
before Shakespeare : wrote several plays ; the chief are ' Doctor 
Eaustus ' and ' The Jew of Malta.' Killed in a tavern scuffle. 

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE (1564-1616), the greatest name in 
English literature : born at Stratford-on-Avon ; wrote, besides 
sonnets, thirty-five plays — tragedies, comedies, and historical 
dramas. 

SIR WALTER RALEIGH (1552-1618): wrote poems in early 
years ; imprisoned twelve years iu the Tower by James I., 
during which time he wrote * The History of the World ' down to 
about 70 B.C. 

RICHARD HOOKER (1553-1600), a divine, educated at Oxford : 
author of the * Book of Ecclesiastical Polity,' a learned work in 
defence of the ceremonies, &c. of the Church of England. 

FRANCIS BACON (1561-1627), Lord ChanceUor under James I., 
a great philosopher: author of the ' Advancement of Learning,' 
the ' Instauration of the Sciences,' 'Novum Organum,' &c. 

The fellow-labourers of Shakespeare in dramatic literature, Ben 
Jonson, Beaumont, Fletcher, and Massinger, will be mentioned in 
the Stuart Period. 

There were no English artists of any note at this time. A Ger- 
man, Hans Holbein, was much patronised by the Tudors. In Italy, 
about the beginning of the sixteenth century, there flourished the 
great painters Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Titian ; and in 
Germany, Albert Dtirer. 



266 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



LEADING BATES OF THE TUDOE PERIOD. 



GENERAL EVENTS. 

Lambert Simnel 

Perkin Warbeck 

Discovery of Bahama Islands by Columbus 

Discovery of Mainland of America by 
Cabot .... 

Wolsey made Cardinal . 

Field of the Cloth of Gold 

Henry VIII. made ' Defender of the 
Faith' .... 

Death of Wolsey . 

Divorce of Catherine of Arragon 

Execution of Bishop Fisher and Sir T. 
More .... 

Wales represented in the English Par- 
liament .... 

The Pilgrimage of Grace 

Execution of Anne Boleyn . 

Execution of Thomas Cromwell 

Execution of Catherine Howard 

Execution of Earl Surrey 

Ket's Eebellion 

Duke of Somerset beheaded 

Wyatt's Rebellion . 

Burning of Cranmer 

Execution of the Duke of Norfolk 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew 

Mary Stuart executed . 

Irish Rebellion .... 

Charter granted to East India Company 

Execution of Earl of Essex . 



A.D. 




1487 


. henbt vn. 


1492 


j> 


1492 


>> 


1497 


>> 


1515 . 


Henry VIII 


1520 


9> 


1521 


»> 


1530 


» 


1533 


IJ 



1535 



1536 


a 


1536 


» 


1536 


>» 


1540 


>> 


1542 


»j 


1547 


»> 


1549 


Edward VI 


1552 


» 


1554 . 


Mary I. 


1556 


if 


1572 . 


Elizabeth. 


1572 


>» 


1587 


>» 


1599 


>> 


1600 


jj 


1601 


>» 



CHANGES OF 


DOMINION. 




Tournay taken and restored 


, 


1513-18 


. Henry VIII 


Boulogne ,, ,, 


• 


1544-50 


• 5> 

and Edward VI. 


Loss of Calais 


, 


. 1558 


. Mary I. 


Havre taken and lost . 


, 


1562-3 


. Elizabeth. 


Virginia first Colonised by Raleigh 


. 1584 


»» 



LEADING- DATES OF THE TUDOE PEEIOD. 267 



WARS, BATTLES. 



Battle of Stoke • . 
,, Spurs 
,, Flodden . 

The Eout of Solway 

Battle of Pinkie . 
,, St. Quentiu 

Armada Defeated . 

Battle of Blackwater 



A.D. 

1487 
1513 
1513 
1542 
1547 
1557 
1588 
1598 



Henry VII. 
Henry VIII. 



Edward VI. 
Mary I. 
Elizabeth. 



< 



THE REFORMATION, 

Luther opposes the Sale of Indul- 

geuces . . . 
{ Luther burns the Pope's Bull . 
German Eeformers first called Pro 

testants ..... 



1^ Divorce of Queen Catherine 
Papal Power overthrown . 
Smaller Monasteries suppressed 
Coverdale's Bible published 
Matthew's Bible .... 
Cranmer's Bible ordered to be placed 

in Churches .... 
Greater Monasteries suppressed. 
The *Six Articles' 
The Litany translated into English 
Forms of Morning and Evening Prayer 

in English .... 
First Book of Common Prayer pub 

lished 

Second Book of Common Prayer 

Papal Power restored. 

Marian Persecution 

The Eeformation completed 

The Eomanists separate from the 

Church of England . 
V 



1517 . Henry VIII. 
1520 

1529 „ 

1533 
1534 
1535-6 „ 
1535 „ 
1537 

1539 „ - 

1539 

1539 

1544 

1545 

1549 . Edward VT. 
1552 

1554 . Mary I. 
.555—8 . ,, 
1559 . Elizabeth. 

1570 





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JAMES I. 269 



STUART PERIOD. 
From 1603 A.D. to 1714 A.D.— 111 Years. 6 Sovereigns. 



A.D. 

JAMES (son of Mary Queen of Scots) . 1603 

CHARLES I. (son) 1625 

THE COMMONWEALTH 1649 

CHARLES IL (son of Charles I.) . . . 1660 
JAMES II. (brother) . ... . . 1685 

WILLIAM III. (nephew) and MARY II. (daughter) 1689 

WILLIAM III. sole ruler 1694 

ANNE (daughter of James II.) . . . 1702-14 



JAMES I. 
Bom 1566 A.D. Began to Reign 1603 A.D. Died 1625 A.D. 



Accession of James. 
Main and Bye Plots. 
Hampton Court Conference. 
Gimpowder Plot. 
The King's Favourites. 

Miscellaneous Events. 



Proposed Spanish Match, 
Disputes with the House of 

Commons. 
Founding of Colonies. 
Death and Character of James. 



Accession of James. 

James I. of England, and YI. of Scotland, ascended the 
English throne as the great-grandson of Margaret, eldest 
daughter of Henry VII. The people of England received 
the proclamation of his accession with favour, and looked 
hopefully upon the union of the tw-o crowns. James set 
out from Edinburgh in the beginning of April, and arrived 
in London about six weeks afterwards. At every stage of 
his progress the people flocked together in great numbers 
13 



270 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

to welcome their new sovereign. They were greatly dis- 
apjiointed Avith his appearance and manners ; and by the 
time he reached the capital, much of his popularity had 
waned. His awkward, slovenly person, his coarse and 
vulgar manners, created a very unfavourable impression. 
James was, anxious to please his new subjects ; and to 
secure their good-will, he bestowed knighthoods upon no 
less than 237 persons in the first , six weeks of his reign. 
So lavish" was he of these titles, that within three years 
700 knights were created. His partiality, however, to 
the numerous Scotch courtiers who accompanied him 
into England caused much jealousy amongst the Eng- 
lish. 

James and his queen, Anne of Denmark, were crowned 
at Westminster, July 25, 1603, and the title of King of 
Great Britain and Ireland was now proclaimed for the first 
time. James wisely left the chief offices of government in 
the hands of Elizabeth's ministers. Among these was 
Secretary Cecil, son of the great Lord Burleigh, whom the 
king created Earl of Salisbury, and retained as his chief 
adviser. Several Scottish lords, however, were placed on 
the English Council. 

Main and Bye Plots. 

At the time of James's accession, the English nation was 
divided into three parties — the Church of England, or 
Episcopalians, the Eomanists, and the Puritans. Each of 
these expected particular favour from the king. The 
Eomanists thought that the son of Mary Stuart would 
have a kindly eye for the members of his mother's commu- 
nion ; and the Puritans hoped that a king educated amongst 
Presbyterians would be favourably disposed to their views. 
James, believing that episcopacy and monarchy must 
stand or fall together, warmly supported the Established 
Church, and expressed his intention of setting up the same 
form of religion in all his dominions. There was, there- 
fore, much discontent in the kingdom, which dissatisfied 
persons tried to turn to account for their own interests. 



JAMES I. 271 

In the first year of the reign two plots were set on foot, 
which became mixed together, though their objects were 
different. Sir Walter Raleigh, the lords Cobham and 
Grey, and the Earl of Northumberland, dissatisfied with 
the new government, conspired to place on the throne the 
Lady Arabella Stuart, a descendant of Henry YIL, and 
cousin of the king. This plot was called the Main, to 
distinguish it from the other, called the Bye. The latter 
was a conspiracy of some Puritans and Ilomanists to seize 
the king's person, for the purpose of obtaining a govern- 
ment favourable to religious toleration. The conspirators 
were arrested ; three of the Bye suffered death, and others 
were banished. Raleigh, Cobham, and Grey were also 
condemned. Raleigh was imprisoned in the Tower for 
thirteen years, where he wrote his ' History of the World.' 
He was then released to go in search of a rich gold mine 
in Guiana. Failing in this enterprise, he was executed upon 
his return to England, on the sentence passed upon him 
fifteen years before. (October 29, 1618.) James is said 
to have ordered this execution to please the Spaniards, 
with whom he was then negotiating for a marriage between 
his son Prince Charles and the Infanta of Spain. 



Hampton Court Conference. 

The Puritans had given much trouble in the late reign. 
They wanted the Reformation to proceed much further, 
and they objected to many things in the Book of Common 
Prayer. So violent Avere some of their leaders, and so 
intemperate were many of their publications, as to bring 
down upon the offenders the vengeance of the government, 
and under Elizabeth some of them were even sent to the 
scaffold. From James they expected favour ; and shortly 
after his accession they presented him with a petition, 
called the Millenary Petition, because they thought a 
thousand names would be attached to it. This petition 
was signed by 825 clergymen. They begged him to use 
his influence to settle the points in dispute between them 



272 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

and the Established Church. The king, tlierefore, ap- 
tanA pointed a conference to be held at Hampton Court. 
Four leading divines of the Puritan party and 
sixteen of the established Church assembled to 
discuss the points of difference. James acted as moderator, 
and took a leading part in the debates, frequently saying, 
^ No bishop, no king! ' Three meetings were held, during 
which objection was taken on the part of the Puritans to 
the use of the cross in baptism, the ring in marriage, the 
surplice, and the bowing at the name of Jesus. The 
results of the conference were : a slight alteration in the 
Book of Common Prayer ; the addition of the part on the 
sacraments to the Catechism; and an arrangement for a 
new translation of the Bible. On this latter work forty- 
seven ministers were engaged for three years. It was 
finished in 1611, and printed in the Eoman character. 
Nearly all the previous translations were printed in Old 
English. • 

Gunpowder Plot. 

Contrary to the expectations of the Eoman Catholics, 
James determined to enforce the laws passed against them 
in the last reign. Disappointed and enraged, they resolved 
to take a terrible revenge. Robert Catesby, a man of good 
family, suggested the plan of blowing up King, Lords, and 
Commons by gunpowder. He told his plan to his friends 
Percy, Winter, and Wright, who warmly approved of the 
design. Guy Fawkes, an officer in the Spanish service, 
whose zeal and courage could be depended on, was brought 
from Flanders to carry out the project. The plot was told 
to several others, of whom Sir Everard Digby was the 
chief, till about twenty persons in all joined the scheme. 
They bound themselves to secrecy by a most solemn 
oath, and by partaking together the sacrament of the Lord's 
Supper. In the summer of 1604, the conspirators hired a 
house next the House of Parliament, and soon pierced 
the cellar wall. To their surprise, they found under the 
House of Lords a vault, which was used as a coal magazine. 



JAMES I. 273 

This they at once hired, and in it placed thirty-six barrels 
of gunpowder. Coals, faggots, and billets were placed over 
these ; and the cellar doors were boldly thrown open, as if 
nothing was the matter. Nearly a year and a half had 
passed since the commencement of the plot, and the dread- 
ful secret was well kept. Parliament was to be opened 
by the king on November 5, 1605, and success ^nrxs 
seemed certain. The conspirators, therefore, com- 
pleted their plans. Digby and others agreed to 
meet, on the pretence of a hunting match, in the •neighbour- 
hood of Dunchurch, in Warwickshire, where the Princess 
Elizabeth was staying, seize her person, and proclaim her 
queen. But in the meantime. Lord Monteagle, a Roman 
Catholic peer, received a letter warning him not to attend 
the opening of Parliament. The mysterious words were : 
* Thei/ will receive a terrible blow this Parliament, and yet 
they shall not see who hurts them.'' The letter was laid 
before the king, who, remembering his father's fate, at 
once guessed that gunpowder was to give the blow. The 
vaults under the House of Lords were searched on the 
night before the day o:rassembling, and there Guy Fawkes 
was found with everything ready to fire the train. Digby 
and his friends were already in arms in Warwickshire 
when news came that all was discovered. They imme- 
diately fled to Holbeach, in Staffordshire, where they were 
soon pursued and attacked. Percy and Catesby were 
killed at one shot ; others were cut to pieces ; but the 
chief conspirators were taken prisoners and executed. 
Garnett, the Jesuit, who was party to the plot, also 
perished on the scaffold. The people were furious at the 
conspiracy, and laws of the severest kind were passed 
against Romanists. 

The King's Favourites. Proposed Spanish Match. 

One great weakness in the character of James was his 
fondness for favourites. The first of these was a Scotch- 
man named Robert Carr, a youth of good family, who 
came to London about the year 1609. At a tilting match 



274 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

in the presence of the king, he chanced to break his leg, 
and being a handsome youth, he obtained the king's pity 
and interest, and was ordered to be lodged in the palace. 
James became deeply attached to him. He knighted him; 
and afterwards conferred upon him the titles of Viscount 
Eochester and Earl of Somerset. In the height of his 
greatness he, contrary to the advice of his friend and secre- 
tary Sir Thomas Overbury, married the divorced wife of 
the young Earl of Essex. The countess never forgave Over- 
bury for this. On her suggestion, he was sent to the Tower 
for some trifling offence, and after a few months he was 
despatched by poison. The murder was discovered, and all 
the parties to it were condemned. The tools in the crime 
were executed, but Somerset and his wife were kept in the 
Tower. After a few years' imprisonment, the unhappy 
pair obtained their freedom, and spent the rest of their 
days in obscurity and disgrace. 

The king's second favourite was George Yilliers, better 
known as the Duke of Buckingham, the son of a Leicester- 
shire knight. He became the first noble in the land, and 
ruled the king and court just as he pleased. All the prin- 
cipal offices of State were filled with his creatures, much to 
the disgust of the nation. The troubles of the following 
reign were due in a great measure to his influence. 

Towards the close of this reign the Thirty Years' War 
broke out on the Continent. (1619-1648.) Its imme- 
diate cause was a dispute .about the crown of Bohemia. 
Ferdinand II. of Austria claimed the kingdom of Bohemia 
by right of inheritance, but the Bohemians, having heartily 
embraced the Reformation, and anxious for a prince 
of their own faith, ofiered the crown to Frederick, 
the Elector Palatine of the Khine, who had married 
Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. As the quarrel was 
a religious one, all the Eoman Catholic powers sup- 
ported Ferdinand, while the leading Protestant States 
sided with the Elector. The Austrians succeeded in 
driving Frederick out of Prague (1620), and he was forced 
to fly for his life to Holland, while his electorate lay at the 
mercy of his enemies? James -did nothing to help his son- 



JAMES I. 275 

in-law, except allowing some volunteers to take arms in 
defence of the palatinate. Instead of joining the Protestant 
confederacy, he hoped to assist the Elector to recover his 
dominions by forming a marriage between Charles Prince 
of Wales and the Infanta of Spain. The English nation 
was averse to the union, and preferred war to such an 
alliance ; but James was obstinate. While the negotia- 
tions for the match were going on, Buckingham and Prince 
Charles visited the court of Spain in disguise, under the 
names of Smith. The prince was received with the highest 
respect, but Buckingham's arrogant conduct and dissolute 
manners greatly offended the Spanish court. Returning 
home through Paris, Prince Charles fell in love with 
Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII. This, and Buck- 
ingham's quarrel with the nobles of Madrid, were the 
means of breaking off the Spanish match. The Parlia- 
ment was delighted with the new turn of affairs, and the 
people praised Buckingham for his share in the matter. 
War with Spain was the result of these changes. In the 
last year of the reign, James sent an army of 12,000 men 
to assist his son-iu-law, but the expedition was managed 
so badly that one-half the men died^ before reaching the 
Continent, and the other half was too weak to do any- 
thing. The Thirty Years' War was brought to an end by 
the Peace of Westphalia, which restored to the Elector the 
greater part of the Palatinate. 

Disputes with the House of Commons. 

The disputes between the House of Commons and the 
king, which ended so tragically in the following reign, 
began under James I. We have seen that the power of 
the Tudor sovereigns was greater than that of the Plan- 
tagenets, but James ascended the English throne just at a 
time when the voice of the people began to make itself 
heard in vindication of their rights. The new king in- 
tended to rule with absolute authority. He was possessed 
with the idea of the divine right of kings, and thought it 
sedition for anyone to question the extent of his power. 



276 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

Such opinions provoked the spirit of the House of Com- 
mons. In the first Parliament of this reign, they told the 
king plainly that no laws could be made or altered in any 
way without their consent. 

James's second Parliament went a step further. The 
Commons complained of his exactions without their autho- 
rity, and refused to grant him supplies of money till all 
their grievances were redressed. (1614). This is one of 
the earliest examples of the exercise of a power which in 
the course of time made the Lower House supreme. James 
would not submit to this, tie thought he had a right to 
his subjects' money without the pother of applying to 
Parliament. He therefore tried to raise a suitable revenue 
by making use of the old feudal customs. Monopolies 
were increased, places and titles were sold, purveyance and 
wardship Avere unduly exercised. The unpopularity caused 
by these -acts was further increased by the proposal to 
marry the Prince of Wales to a Papist. The third Parlia- 
ment was loud in its complaints; and when the king said 
they had no right to meddle in affairs of State, and only 
owed their privileges to the grace of his ancestors and 
himself, the House of Commons drew up a protest, in which 
it was declared that ' freedom of speech and the privileges 
of Parliament are the undoubted birthright and inherit- 
ance of the subjects of England.' James in a passion sent 
for the journals of the House, and with his own hands 
tore out this spirited protest. The Commons were as 
determined as the king, and the last Parliament won a 
victory over the royal authority by passing an Act making 
monopolies unlawful. During this reign they also revived 
the custom of accusing public offenders before the House 
of Lords. Lord Chancellor Bacon and the Lord Treasurer 
were thus tried and fined for corruption in their office. 

The Founding of Colonies. Death and Character 
of James. 

The foundation of our colonial empire was laid in this 
reign. In 1607, about one hundred Englishmen landed at 



JAMES I. 277 

Jamestown, in Virginia, llaleigh's settlement on the same 
coast in Elizabeth's time had been abandoned. In 1610, 
a charter was granted for the colonisation of Newfoundland. 
In 1620, a band of English Puritan refugees sailed from 
Holland in two small vessels to find a home in the New 
World. These exiles — the celebrated ' Pilgrim Fathers ' — 
put into Plymouth, whence they afterwards sailed in the 
' Mayflower,' and landed safely in Massachusetts Bay. In 
memory of the kindness received at Plymouth, they named 
their first settlement New Plymouth. 

Important changes were also taking place in Ireland. In 
the early part of the reign, about two million acres were 
taken from the rebellious chiefs of Ulster, and a scheme 
was set on foot to divide the land amongst settlers from 
Great Britain. A company was formed in London for 
this purpose ; and the king instituted and sold the title of 
* baronet,' to obtain funds. Great numbers of English and 
Scotch settled in Ulster and other parts, and thus laid the 
foundation of the prosperity of that province. 

James died of ague at his palace of Theobalds, in Hert- 
fordshire. His character is marked by obstinacy 
and conceit; he was vain of his learning, and i/»qc* 
peaceful in disposition. He had a weakness for 
favourites. His person was awkward and un- 
gainly ; and though he was fond of power, pride was not 
one of his faults. His children by his only wife, Anne of 
Denmark, were: Henry, who died 1612; Charles, who' be- 
came king ; and Elizabeth, who married the Elector Pala- 
tine, from whom the House of Brunswick descends. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

In 1604, the union of England and Scotland was first 
mooted, but the proposal, being opposed by both nations, 
came to nothing. The East India Company established 
factories at Surat and other places, and opened up trade 
with Java and Sumatra. In 1619, Dr. Harvey published 
his discovery of the circulation of the blood. The manu- 
facture of broad silk and cotton were introduced about the 



278 



HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 



close of the reign. Licenses were first granted to public- 
houses. Farthings were coined, being the first copper 
money issued in England. The palace of Whitehall was 
designed by Inigo Jones, and the New Kiver constructed 
for supplying London with water. Baffin and Hudson 
explored the Arctic Sea, and discovered Greenland and 
the adjacent coasts. James tried to establish episcopacy 
in Scotland, but the opposition of the Presbyterians made 
the attempt useless. The microscope and thermometer 
came into use. The first newspaper, ' The Weekly News,' 
published in 1622. 




Greneral Costume of Nobility, time of James I. 



CHARLES I. 
Born 1600 A.D. Began to Reign 1625 A.D. Beheaded 1649 A.D. 



Dispute with the First Parlia- 
ments. 

Petition of Right. 

War with Spain and Prance. 

Murder of Buckingham. 

Absolute Goyernment of Charles. 

Courts of Star Chamber and 
High Commission. 

Ship-Money. 

The Prayer Book in Scotland. 

The Covenant. 

Rebellion of the Seots. ' 

The Long Parliament. 

Execution of StraiFord. 

Pacification of Scotland. 



The Irish Rebellion. 

Cavaliers and Roundheads. 

Rupture between King and Par- 
liament. 

The Grand Remonstrance. 

Attempted Seizure of the 'Five 
Members.' 

The Civil War. 

Disputes between Parliament 
and the Army. 

Royalist Insurrections. 

Pride's Purge. 

Trial, Execution, and Character 
of Charles. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 



Disputes with the First Parliaments. 
Petition of Right. 

Charles I., the second son of James I., ascended the 
throne at a very critical time. The popular mind during 
the late reign had lost much of its respect for royalty, and 
the claims of James I. to absolute authority had provoked 
the spirit of the people. Puritanism, too, had taken deep 
root in the land, in spite of opposition and oppression ; and 
as Church and king were regarded as one by the Puritan 
mind, opposition to the kingly power followed as a natural 
consequence. Parliament had neglected to place checks 
upon the royal authority when the House of Stuart first 
came to the throne. The accession of a new king gave a 
suitable opportunity for this purpose. Charles, before 
calling his first Parliament, had married Henrietta Maria, 
daughter of Henry lY. of France, and the Roman Catholic 



280 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

religion, which the queen professed, was by no means 
favourable to the popularity of the court. The king met 
his first Parliament at Westminster under unfavourable 
circumstances. His father had left him a heavy debt to 
pay, a war with the powerful kingdom of Spain, and an 
unpopular court favourite in the person of the Duke of 
Buckingham. On the other hand, the House of Commons 
was chiefly composed of Puritans, to whom civil and re- 
ligious liberty were things inseparable, and they therefore 
resolved to have both, by making the king dependent upon 
their will. To the king's demand for money to meet the 
expenses of government and the war, they voted 140,000/., 
with tonnage and poundage for one year only — a sum 
insufficient to pay half the debt left by James I.^ They 
presented at the same time a petition praying the king to 
put in force all laws against Eomanists. Charles, finding 
his Parliament deaf to his entreaties for supplies, dissolved 
it. By means of the old custom of forced loans, he obtained 
enough money to equip a fleet for an expedition to Spain. 

A second Parliament was summoned in 1626 ; but four 
leading Opposition members of the late House of Commons 
were appointed sheriffs, and were thus prevented from 
being elected on this occasion. The Commons, however, 
were more hostile than before. They renewed their com- 
plaints against Papists, protested against levying moneys 
without their consent, and proceeded to impeach the king's 
minister, the Duke of Buckingham. Charles, exasperated 
with their opposition, imprisoned two leading members of 
the House, Digges and Eliot, on the charge of using 
seditious language. This proceeding gave great offence, 
and widened the breach already existing. To save his 
favourite, the king dissolved his second Parliament. Taxes 
were then raised without any legal right ; the chiefs of the 
Opposition were thrown into prison ; companies of soldiers 
v/ere billeted on the people ; and martial law was put in 
force in several places. 

* Tonnage and Poundage were Custom dues, first levied in the 
reign of Edward III., and consisted of a certain charge on every tun 
of wine, and on every 'pound of naerchandise imported or exported. 



CHAELES I. 281 

The king's difficulties were now further increased by a war 
with France ; and to obtain the necessary supplies, he sum- 
moned a third Parliament. The Commons assembled . ^^^ 

1628 
with a set determination to maintain their rights 

and liberties. Before voting the required sup- 
plies, they drew up a law, called the Petition of Right, 
and presented it to the king for his assent. This famous 
Bill is the second Great Charter of the liberties of En"-- 
land. According to its provisions, the king solemnly bound 
himself: (1) Never to raise money without the consent of 
Parliament; (2) never again to imprison persons for re- 
fusing to pay illegal taxes ; (3) not to billet soldiers on 
private individuals; (4) not to subject the people- to 
martial law. Five subsidies, amounting to 400,000/., were 
then voted, and the Parliament was delighted at the pro- 
spect of friendly relations with their sovereign. But the 
Petition of Eight was soon broken. Taxes were raised 
illegally, as before ; and when the Commons remonstrated, 
nine of the leading members were stigmatised as * vipers,' 
and thrown into prison, Avhere one of them. Sir John 
Eliot, died after years of confinement. Parliament Avas 
then dissolved with every mark of royal displeasure ; and 
Charles, seeing that home affairs would require all his 
skill and attention, made peace with France and Spain. 



War with Spain and France. Murder of 
Buckingham. 

War with Spain had been declared by James I. chiefly 
through the influence of the Duke of Buckingham. In 
1625, a fleet of nearly a hundred ships, containing about 
10,000 soldiers, was sent to capture Cadiz, but the expedi- 
tion turned out a failure. No further attempt was made, 
and the war was brought to an end in 1630. 

War was declared against France in 1627. Bucking- 
ham had quarrelled with Cardinal Eichelieu, the famous 
minister of that country, who was then engaged in a con- 
test with the Huguenots of Eochelle. The duke, to re- 
venge himself on the cardinal, advised his master to declare 



282 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 

war, on the plea of helping the French Protestants. Three 
expeditions were sent to relieve Eochelle, which was then 
being closely besieged. The first was commanded by Buck- 
ingham, and consisted of 100 vessels and 7,000 soldiers, 
but the inhabitants in distrust refused to receive the ex- 
pedition into the harbour. The duke turned aside to the 
island of Ehe, where he lost half his men and achieved 
nothing. A second expedition was sent out in 1628, under 
Lord Denbigh, Buckingham's brother-in-law, but this 
proved as fruitless as the first. Buckingham resolved to 
head a third himself. While at Portsmouth, preparing to 
set sail, Lieutenant Felton, a disgraced officer, stabbed 
him to the heart. The expedition sailed under the com- 
mand of the Earl of Lindsay, but failed like the others. 
Rochelle, after losing two-thirds of its inhabitants, surren- 
dered to the French king. (October 18, 1628.) The war 
lingered ingloriously till 1630, when the home difficulties 
of Charles compelled him to make peace. 



Absolute Government of Charles. Courts of Star 
Chamber and Hi^h Commission. Ship-Money. 

After the dissolution of the third Parliament, Charles 
resolved to govern without one, and from March 1629 to 
April 1640 the Houses were not summoned. He had 
succeeded in winning over to his side several of the 
popular leaders, by whose help and guidance he made his 
rule as despotic as any continental sovereign. The most 
noted of these men was Sir Thomas Wentworth, after- 
wards made Earl of Strafford. He was a man of great 
talent, and was thoroughly acquainted with the feelings 
and plans of the party to which he had lately belonged. 
He suggested a scheme of government, to which he privately 
gave the name of ' Thorough.' Its object was to make the 
king's power absolute by the establishment of a standing 
army. Wentworth knew that he was hated to the death 
by the leaders with whom he had formerly acted, and, 
hating in return, he bent all the powers of his mind to 



CHAELES I. 283 

make tlie king's policy successful. Appointed Viceroy of 
Ireland in 1633, he put his scheme to the test in that 
country, and succeeded so well in establishing a military 
despotism over both the native people and the English 
colonists, that he was able to boast that the king was as 
absolute in that island as any prince in the whole world 
could be. 

Another adviser of Charles at this time was Laud, Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. The affairs of the English Church 
were entrusted to his hands. He was a man who believed 
that the English Eeformation had been carried too far, and 
consequently he wished to revive many religious customs 
that had fallen into disuse. His opinions led the court of 
Rome to hope that its authority would soon be restored in 
this country, and on two occasions the Pope offered him, 
in private, a cardinal's hat. This he refused, saying ' that 
something dwelt within him which would not suffer his 
compliance till Rome were other than it is.' To the 
Puritans Laud was bitterly opposed. Under his direction, 
every corner of the realm was thoroughly inspected for 
the uprooting of dissenting congregations. His harsh 
measures against the Puritans, and his extreme religious 
opinions, brought the English Church into hatred, and 
aggravated the evils of the king's government. 

In defiance of the Petition of Right, Charles continued 
for eleven years to take his subjects' money on his own 
authority. All manner of devices were used to raise 
money. Old laws were revived ; titles to land were called 
in question; monopolies were restored, and extended to 
nearly aU articles in general use. Those who refused to 
pay forfeited their goods, or suffered imprisonment. If 
discontent showed itself in any district, royal troops were 
sent there and billeted upon the people. Ao^ainst these 
illegal acts the people had no appeal. The judges held their 
office at the king's pleasure, and therefore dared not coun- 
tenance opposition to the sovereign's will. But the chief 
instruments of Charles's government at this time were the 
courts of Star Chamber and High Commissioii. The 
Star Chamber attended to political matters, while the High. 



284 HISTOKY 01<^ ENGLAND. 

Commission looked after the affairs of religion. These 
courts, free from the control of Parliament, became very 
oppressive, and sentenced men to fines, imprisonment, the 
pillory, and mutilation, without restraint. For example, 
a certain Dr. Leighton was publicly whipped, his ears cut 
off, his nostrils slit, and his cheeks branded with the 
letters ' S. S.' (' Sower of Sedition'), by order of the Court 
of Star Chamber, for writing a book entitled ' Zion's Plea 
against Prelacy.' In like manner, a lawyer named Prynne 
was heavily fined and put into the pillory, with the loss of 
his ears, for writings in which the queen was said to be 
libelled. In addition to these courts, a council sat at 
York, under the presidency of Wentworth, which made 
the king's rule absolute in the north. 

Of all the taxes levied by Charles, the most unpopular 
was that of Ship-Money. It had been the practice of 
previous kings, from the time of the Danish invasions, to 
call upon the maritime counties to furnish ships for the 
defence of the coast. Sometimes money was accepted 
instead of ships. On the advice of Finch, the Chief 
Justice, and Noy, the Attorney- General, it was resolved in 
1634 to revive the old custom. The sea-ports were first 
called upon to pay a sum of money instead of ships, and 
in the following year, a similar payment was demanded of 
the inland counties. The outcries against this imposition 
were loud and general. People said it was a war tax in 
time of peace ; that former princes never collected it from 
inland places; that it M^as always devoted to the main- 
tenance of a navy, but that the king now could do what he 
liked with it ; and that it was levied without consent of 
Parliament. A fleet, indeed, was necessary for England'^ 
safety, for the Dutch and Barbary pirates frequented the 
coasts, and did much mischief to English commerce. 
Ship-money enabled the king to fit out a formidable fleet, 
which did good service ; but the safety of the coasts could 
not reconcile the people to arbitrary taxation. John 
Hampden, a gentleman of Buckinghamshire, had the cou- 
rage to challenge the lawfulness of the imposition. A sum 
of twenty shillings was levied upon his estate, and, re- 



CHARLES I. 285 

fiising to pay, the case was argued before the judges in the 
Court of Exchequer. The judges, by a small -tnotj 
majority, decided against Hampden, but the trial 
was damaging to the government. The nation 
was irritated and aroused, and encouraged by Hampden's 
example to dispute the royal will. The arguments used at 
the trial enabled men to see that their liberties were in 
danger, and everywhere the nation's peril was discussed 
and lamented. 

Many, despairing of their country, now turned their eyes 
to the shores of America, where a few resolute Puritans 
had already established a home. Thither ship after ship 
sailed with men in search of the civil and religious liberty 
denied them at home. The government regarded these 
colonies with dislike, and was angered to see its opponents 
escape from its power. Eight ships, containing some of 
the best of England's sons, were lying in the Thames, 
ready to sail, when an order of Council came forbidding 
them to proceed. On board one of these were Sir Arthur 
Hazelrig, John Hampden, John Pym, and Oliver Crom- 
well, men who afterwards took a foremost part in over- 
throwing the royal power. The king had leisure in after 
years to repent of the step which hindered these men from 
leaving the country. The nation at this time seemed 
utterly at the king's mercy, and Wentworth's scheme of 
' Thorough ' seemed in a fair way of being accomplished, 
when the royal policy in Scotland suddenly changed the 
whole face of affairs. 

Introduction of a Prayer Book into Scotland. 
The Covenant. Rebellion of the Scots. 

Charles, like his father, wished to establish in Scotland 
a religious system similar to that of England. In 1633, 
he visited his northern kingdom, accompanied by Laud, 
and on that occasion appointed fourteen bishops. Several 
of these prelates were raised to the chief dignities of the 
State, much to the disgust of the Scotch nobility, who 
regarded these ecclesiastics as upstarts, and probable 
claimants of the Chiu'ch property pillaged at the Reforma- 



28G HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 

tion. The lower order of the clergy, too, looked with no 
friendly eye upon the bishops. The common people, 
influenced by nobles and clergy, were jealous of the king's 
intentions, and very discontented with his measures. In 
no country was there such a horror of Romanism. To 
the Presbyterian mind, bishops, surplices, and a liturgy 
were popish, and therefore hateful. No riotous opposition, 
however, was offered to the king as long as the people 
were permitted to conduct public worship according to the 
Presbyterian manner. In an unhappy moment, Charles 
resolved to introduce a Prayer Book into the Scotch Kirk. 
A service book was compiled after the pattern of the Eng- 
lish Liturgy, but far more repugnant to rigid Protestants, 
.. --„ and notice was issued that it should be used on 
a certain Sunday in the cathedral church of St. 

A.D. , 

Giles, Edinburgh. On the appointed day the 
Dean of Edinburgh proceeded to read the service in the 
presence of the bishops and Privy Council, and a vast 
crowd of people, but no sooner was the book opened than 
the people groaned, hissed, and shouted, * A Pope ! a 
Pope ! Antichrist ! Stone him ! ' The bishop, mounting 
the pulpit to stop the tumult, had a stool thrown at his 
head, and barely escaped with his life. The tumult thus 
begun was followed by a riot, and the riot ended in revo- 
lution. In vain did Charles threaten the unruly Scots 
with military force. The spirit of the people was up, and 
their fanaticism was lashed to fury from every pulpit in 
the land. Four tables^ or committees, were formed in 
Edinburgh, consisting of the nobility, gentry, ministers, 
and burgesses respectively ; and all the authority of the 
kingdom passed into their hands. One of their first mea- 
sures was the production of the national Covenant, by 
which the people bound themselves to resist popery and 
all innovations in religion, and to defend each other against 
all opposition. (1638.) Before two months had passed, 
nineteen- twentieths of the nation, of all ranks and both sexes, 
signed this document, and were henceforth called Cove- 
nanters, A General Assembly soon after met at Glasgow, 
and abolished episcopacy, liturgy, canons, and High Com- 



CHAKLES I. 287 

mission Court — all that James and Charles had spent 
years to establish ; and thus presbyterianism once more 
rooted itself more firmly in the Scottish Church. 

Both sides now rushed to arms — the king to defend his 
authority, the Scots their religion and liberties. Twenty 
thousand men were soon assembled under Charles at Ber- 
wick, while an equal number of Scots, under General 
Leslie, marched toAvards the same place. England was 
quite strong enough to coerce the Scots, though they were 
secretly aided with money and arms by Cardinal Richelieu 
of France ; but the majority of the English people sympa- 
thised with the revolt, and trusted that its success would 
be useful in upsetting the arbitrary government of the 
king. Charles, aware of this feeling amongst his Eng- 
lish subjects, instead of proceeding to battle, entered 
into negotiation with the insurgents, by which it was 
agreed that both armies should be disbanded, and that all 
disputes should be settled by a General Assembly and 
Parliament. (1639.) These Assemblies not only confirmed 
all that had previously been done, but proceeded to take 
measures for curbing the royal power for the future. 
Charles, though willing to yield to the wishes of the Scots 
in matters of religion, resolved to uphold his authority 
by force of arms ; but money was wanting to equip an 
army. No resource was left but to call a Parliament ; and 
in the spring of 1640, one was convoked. Supplies of 
money were at once asked ; but the House of Commons, 
remembering that for eleven years the country had been 
without a Parliament, and had been subject to many unjust 
exactions, complained of their grievances, instead of voting 
money. This conduct was highly displeasing to Charles, 
and the Parliament was dissolved with every mark of dis- 
pleasure, after sitting only three Aveeks. On this account 
it has been called the ' Short Parliament.' This abrupt 
dissolution increased the discontent already existing, which 
was further increased by the rigorous exactions of money 
that followed this step. By means of illegal taxation, the 
king got together an army of 20,000 men, but the Scots, 
encouraged by the leaders of the English Opposition, were 



288 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

beforehand with him. They crossed the Tweed under 
Leslie, routed a small body of English at Newburn-on- 
Tyne, and took possession of Newcastle. Charles, as a last 
expedient, summoned a great Council of Peers to meet 
him at York, where it was decided to call another Parlia- 
ment, and take immediate measures to stop the progress of 
the. Scots. Commissioners from both sides drew up the 
Treaty of Ripon, by Avhich it was agreed that the points 
in dispute should be settled by the Parliaments of the two 
countries, and that in the meantime England should pay 
the cost of the Scottish army. 

The Long Parliament. Execution of Strafford. 
Pacification of Scotland. 

In November 1640, the memorable Assembly known in 
history as the Long Parliament came together. It con- 
tinued to sit till Cromwell turned out the mem- 
JNov. 
lRAr\ ^^^® ^^ 1653, and was not finally dissolved till 

1660. All the surviving popular leaders who 
had opposed the king's policy in the previous 
parliaments were again returned. Taking advantage of 
the presence of a Scottish army in England, they resolved 
to curb the royal power, and remove the grievances under 
which the nation had groaned for the last eleven years. 
Instead of granting money to crush the rebellion of the 
Scots, they proceeded to take measures for the protection 
of their own liberties. The victims of the courts of Star 
Chamber and High Commission were released and com- 
pensated. The advisers of the king were accused of 
treason and brought to punishment. Strafford, the only 
able man Charles had, was impeached of treason before 
the House of Lords by Pym, the leader of the Commons, 
and sent to the Tower. The Lord Keeper, Finch, escaped 
arrest by flight, while Laud was sent after Strafford. 
Attention was then given to the question of religion. 
Laud's extreme views and the favours shown to Romanists 
did as much to make the king unpopular as his unlawful 
government. The people were alarmed at the spread of 



CHAELES I. 289 

popery. The Commons compelled the king to dismiss all 
Eoman Catholics from the court and army, and to banish 
aU Romish priests from the kingdom. On their own au- 
thority they ordered all images and ornaments in churches 
to be removed and defaced. In this way many valuable 
monuments at Cheapside and Charing Cross were destroyed. • 

For ten months Parliament worked hard to secure the 
liberties of the nation. By a Triennial Bill, it enacted 
that there should be a Parliament at least every three 
years ; and if the writs were not issued by royal authority 
at the proper time, the people themselves should proceed 
to elect their representatives. And to prevent the sove- 
reign from suddenly dismissing the Parliament, it was 
further enacted that the Houses should not be adjourned, 
prorogued, or dissolved, within fifty days of assembling, 
without their own consent. The king having been thus 
rendered powerless, it was determined to bring Strafford 
to trial. So well did this nobleman defend himself in 
Westminster Hall that, to ensure his destruction, the im- 
peachment was abandoned in favour of a Bill of Attainder, 
by which an accused person might be voted worthy of death. 
The popular leaders never forgave Strafford's desertion of 
their cause. He was too able a man to let live ; and 
until his head rolled on the scaffold, their plans were not 
sure of success. In a House of Commons of 263 members, 
only 59 voted against the Bill, and some of those who 
afterwards became leading Royalists, as Colepepper, Hyde, 
and Falkland, were in the majority. Charles hesitated to 
sign the death-warrant of his faithful servant. Mobs sur- 
rounded his palace of Whitehall, and clamoured for justice 
upon the condemned earl. The queen, terrified with the 
tumult, and by no means friendly to Strafford, besought 
her husband with tears to grant the demands of the people. 
At this juncture, Strafford wrote a letter to the king, 
offering to lay down his life willingly to secure the peace 
of the nation. In a few days, the Bill of Attainder 
received the royal signature, and the earl was May 12 
executed on Tower Hill, As he passed Laud's 1641 
windows to the scaffold, the aged prelate held A..D. 



290 EISTORY 0.F ENGLAND. 

out liis hands in blessing over his doomed friend, litrie 
thinking that he, too, ere long, would experience the same 
fate. 

Parliament, having passed a Bill that the Houses should 
not be dissolved without their own consent, voted 300,000/. 
to the Scotch for their timely assistance, and abolished the 
courts of Star Chamber and High Commission, and r.egii- 
lated all the other courts in which the king exercised 
any authority. The House of Commons next gave its 
attention to the conduct of the bishops and clergy; but the 
violent spirit in which religious questions were argued 
caused a split among the members, and produced a reaction 
in the king's favour. 

Charles then visited Scotland, and pacified the people of 
that country by surrendering the royal authority entirely 
into their hands. He even took into his favour the men 
who had been most active against him. Leslie was made 
Earl of Leven, and Argyle, the leader of the Covenanters, 
was made a marquis. These concessions to the Scots pro- 
duced a good feeling in England, and strengthened the 
hands of those who thought that the English Parliament 
need not encroach any further on the royal prerogative. 
But just then news came from Ireland which kindled anew 
the flames of discord and opposition. 

The Irish Rebellion. Cavaliers and Roundheads. 

In the reign of James I. many English and Scotch settled 
down in Ulster, on lands taken from the rebellious chiefs 
of that province. The native Irish regarded these new 
settlers with the greatest hatred, as being aliens in race 
and heretics in religion. Under Strafford's iron rule, 
scarcely any one dared to give vent to their ill-wi]l. His 
arbitrary authority, however, though it made the island 
peaceful in appearance, increased the hatred to everything 
English. The successful rebellion of the Scotch, and the 
action of the Long Parliament, gave to the Irish an ex- 
ample which they were not slow to follow, Strafford was 
dead, and the army which upheld his power was greatly 



CHARLES I. 291 

reduced in numbers. Now was the time to destroy for 
ever English supremacy in Ireland. A deep-rooted con- 
spiracy for this purpose, headed by Eoger More, O'Neale, 
and other chieftains, spread throughout Ulster. On the 
approach of winter, the Irish of the north were up in arms, 
and let loose their pent-up rage upon the un- ^^ <. 90 
happy settlers. Their example was quickly fol- -ipA-i 
lowed by the rest of the island, and even the 
English of the Pale, as the old English planters 
were called, joined in the war of extermination. No age, 
sex, or condition was spared. Wives weeping over their 
murdered husbands, and little ones clinging to their 
mothers, were butchered without mercy. Eeligion, instead 
of staying the murderer's hand, added greater fury to his 
hate. The English, as heretics, were marked out by 
popish priests as undeserving of pity, and to rid the world 
of such enemies was proclaimed a meritorious act. How 
many perished in this cruel slaughter is not accurately 
known. The highest estimate gives two hundred thousand, 
the lowest, forty thousand. 

The news of this massacre increased the animosity of 
the English Parliament towards Papists, but it refused to 
raise an army to punish the rebels, fearing the king might 
employ it against the liberties of England. The queen 
was a Romanist, and Charles was suspected of being par- 
tial to that faith. Besides, it was soon whispered abroad 
that the rebellion in Ireland was part of a dark scheme 
planned at the English court. The Commons, distrustful 
and suspicious, did scarcely anything to avenge their coun- 
trymen and religion, but took advantage of the crisis to 
obtain money and arms for their own defence, in case of 
troubles at home. 

The House of Commons at this time was no longer 
united in its opinions. Eor the first ten months of its 
sitting, its Acts for the remedy of abuses were almost 
unanimously carried, but in the summer of this year a 
great reaction took place, and two great political parties 
then appeared on the scene. The king's concessions in 
Scotland brought many members of Parliament to his side. 



292 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

They thought that enough had been done to vindicate and 
secure popular liberty, and that any further encroachment 
upon the royal prerogative would end in anarchy. Pres- 
byterian influence in religious questions, besides, had grown 
to an alarming extent, and the Church of England seemed 
in danger of destruction. Thus thought Falkland, Hyde, 
and Colepepper — men who once occupied a foremost place 
in the popular party ; and under their leadership a strong 
Eoyalist body arose in Parliament. On the other hand, Pym, 
HoUis, and Hampden, argued that opposition and watch- 
fulness were still needed to secure what had been wrung 
from a king whose word could not be trusted. The 
majority of the nobles, the clergy, and country gentlemen, 
were on the Royalist side. In the same interest were the 
Roman Catholics to a man, and so were all those who dis- 
liked Puritan austerity. The Opposition received its chief 
support from the merchants and shopkeepers of the towns, 
and from the small freeholders of the country. The whole 
body of Nonconformists and the Puritan members of the 
Church of England adhered to the same side. It was also 
headed by a few of the nobility, who, from their wealth and 
influence, were very formidable. The two parties in the 
House of Commons were nearly evenly balanced, but the 
preponderance was in favour of the Opposition. As discus- 
sion warmed and strife increased, party names came into 
use. The king's friends took the name of Cavaliers, whilst 
the supporters of the Opposition, from their close-cut hair, 
received in derision the name of Roundheads. In the 
course of years the name Tory and Whig took the place 
of Cavalier and Roundhead, but in modern times the same 
parties are known as Conservative and Liberal. 

Rupture between the King and Parliament. The 
Grand Remonstrance. Attempted Seizure of the 
'Five Members.' 

The king's popularity in Scotland, and his favourable 
reception by the citizens of London on his return from the 
north, excited the fears of the popular party in Parliament. 



CHARLES I. 293 

A rumour, too, had spread that Charles had discovered 
a treasonable correspondence between the Parliamentary 
leaders and the Scots, and that he intended to punish them 
as traitors. All this, coupled with alarming news from 
Ireland, produced a violent discussion in the House of 
Commons. The Opposition, distrustful of their sovereign's 
sincerity, fearful of his growing popularity, and anxious 
for its own safety, resolved to do something to stem the 
returning tide of loyalty, and make the preservation of 
liberty doubly sure. They therefore published a Remon- 
strance, setting forth all the faults of the king's govern- 
ment from the beginning of the reign, and expressing the 
distrust with which his policy was still regarded. It 
asserted that the realm was in danger from a popish 
faction, which had tried to introduce its superstition into 
England and Scotland, and had excited a bloody rebellion 
in Ireland. The object of the Eemonstrance was evident. 
Moderate men saw in its publication the revival of discon- 
tents which had already been appeased, and an act of 
deliberate hostility against the king. In the House of 
Commons the proposal was discussed with such warmth as 
at one time to threaten open violence ; and in the streets 
of London opposing factions often came to blows. It was 
a trial of strength between the friends of the court and 
the Opposition, upon which the future government of 
the nation depended. Both sides were fierce, 
eager, and determined, and pretty nearly equal in - '.^ ' 
strength ; but after a long and hot debate, the 
Eemonstrance was carried by the small majority 
of 159 to 148. So important was the contest, that Oliver 
Cromwell, one of the leading members of the Opposition, 
declared, on leaving the House, that had the question been 
lost, he would have sold his estate and retired to America. 
The result of the struggle was, after all, favourable to the 
court. A majority of eleven was nothing to boast of, and 
the king's friends saw that if he showed respect to the 
laws and moderation in his conduct, the balance of power 
would soon turn in his favour. Hyde, Falkland, and Cole- 
pepper, men once foremost in the popular ranks, became his 
14 



294 HISTOHY OF ENGLAND. 

confidential advisers, and everything seemed to promise well. 
But the leaders of the Commons were not satisfied with this 
victory. They had no confidence in the king's intentions, 
and the fear of popery was ever present in their minds and 
the cause of continual distrust. Eumours of popish plots 
were set abroad, and the pulpits of London resounded with 
the dangers which threatened religion. The bishops became 
so obnoxious that they were daily insulted in the streets. At 
length, prevented by the rabble from attending the House of 
Lords, they issued a protest against all laws passed in their 
absence. For this they were impeached of high treason by 
the Commons, and sent to the Tower. The king, provoked 
by such an insult to the Church, committed an act of indis- 
cretion which finally ended in his ruin. Thinking to 
strike terror into his opponents, he went to the House of 
Commons, accompanied by armed attendants, to seize five 
of its leading men — Hollis, Hampden, Pym, Haselrig, and 
Strode. But these members having received private infor- 
mation of the blow intended for them, fled into the City 
just before Charles entered the House. This violation of the 
privileges of Parliament roused the spirit of the Opposition 
to fury. The streets of London that night were filled with 
armed mobs. In a few days the roads leading to the capital 
were crowded with armed men hurrying to defend their ret- 
presentatives, and strong bodies of train-bands were placed 
on guard round Westminster Hall. The king's friends in 
Parliament were entirely helpless ; shame for his reckless 
conduct kept many silent, and fears for their personal 
safety prevented others from attending. The royal palace 
was no longer safe, and Charles quitted London, never 
again to return to it except as a prisoner. The breach 
between king and Parliament daily grew wider, and it was 
manifest on both sides that the quarrel must be decided by 
the sword. The leaders of the Commons believed that 
Charles only wanted the power to crush them ; they dared 
not trust him with an army, though Ireland needed a force to 
punish the authors of its cruel rebellion. The king, there- 
fore, was required to give up the command of the militia, 
or, in other words, the control of the armed force of the 



CHARLES I. 295 

kingdoTJi. Fearing that violence would be employed to 
extort his consent, he retired to York. On his journey, he 
found that the violence of the Londoners had produced its 
reaction, and on every side he received expressions of 
sympathy and encouragement. Hull, however, where a 
great quantity of arms were stored, was shut against him. 
At York the Commons presented their last demands, in 
nineteen propositions, which, if granted, would upset the 
ancient institutions of the realm, and reduce the sovereign 
to a mere puppet. Charles was particularly enraged at 
the demand to give up the control of the military forces of 
the kingdom, since he and his friends had as much reason 
to distrust the sincerity of the Parliamentary leaders as 
they had to distrust him. The Parliament was already 
acting in his name without his sanction, and levying forces 
* for the defence of the king and Parliament,' which they 
were resolved to use against the person of the sovereign if 
necessary. Nothing remained for Charles but to 
submit to the usurpation of his prerogatives or - '.^^ ' 
to draw the sword. He chose the latter, and at 
Nottingham raised the royal standard, the signal 
of civil war throughout the kingdom, and very soon 10,000 
men rallied round it. 



The Civil War. 

As soon as the royal standard was unfurled at Notting- 
ham, hostile factions appeared in arms in almost every 
county of England. The contending parties were pretty 
equally matched, but the Parliament had an advantage in 
possessing London- and the neighbouring counties, and the 
majority of the large toAvns, from which it could raise 
supplies of money. The fleet, too, which commanded the 
seaports, was under its control. The king could only raise 
money from the rural districts occupied by his troops ; but 
he Avas surrounded by the gentry and aristocracy of the 
land, who willingly pawned their jewels, broke up their 
plate, and mortgaged their lands, to supply their sove- 
reign's need. But he had an advantage over the Houses 



296 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

in liaving under his banner higli-spirited gentlemen, accus- 
tomed to the use of arms and horses, to whom defeat was 
the greatest disgrace. These, with their numerous de- 
pendents, formed a force against which the Parliament had 
little chance of contending successfully. Plough-boys, 
apprentice-lads, and tradesmen, of which the Parliamentary 
ranks were chiefly composed, were no match for the 
chivalry of England. At the outset, therefore, the Royalist 
side was victorious in almost every encounter. 

The Eoyal army was placed under the command of the 
Earl of Lindsay. Prince Eupert, the king's nephew, was 
at the head of the cavalry. On the Parliament side, the 
Earl of Essex commanded the land forces, while the fleet 
was committed to the Earl of Warwick. Blood was first 
drawn in a cavalry skirmisli at Powick Bridge, near Wor- 
cester, where Prince Rupert routed a body of horse. The 
first pitched battle took pkice at EdgeMll, in 
Ifii^' ^^'^^^'^^'ickshire, in which Lindsay was mortally 

, T. wounded and taken prisoner. The result was 
indecisive. The two armies were still facing 
each other on the following morning, but neither was dis- 
posed to renew the contest. Essex, however, first drew off 
the field, and Charles returned to his headquarters at 
Shrewsbury. Shortly after, the Royalist forces marched 
towards the capital, and put to flight some cavalry in the 
village of Brentford ; but fliiling to enter London, the king 
withdrew to Oxford to spend the winter. 

In the early part of the following year, the Scottish Par- 
liament offered to mediate between the contending parties, 
and negotiations were carried on at Oxford, but to no pur- 
pose. The campaign opened with the siege of Beading, 
which surrendered to Essex in ten days. The Royalist 
horse stopped all further advance in that quarter, and in 
a skirmish which took place at Chalgrove Field, Oxford- 
shire, John Hampden was mortally wounded. In the west 
and in the north the king's side was everywhere victorious. 
At Stratton, in Cornwall; Atherton Moor, near Bradford; 
Lansdown, near Bath (July 5) ; and at Eoundway Down, 
near Devizes (July 13), the Parliamentarians were succes- 



CHARLES I. 297 

fiively beaten. Charles captured Bristol, then the second 
city in the kingdom, after a siege of three days, and imme- 
diately proceeded to invest the important town of Glou- 
cester. It was j ust on the point of surrendering, when Essex, 
moving rapidly with a force of 14,000 men, compelled the 
king to raise the siege. Both armies then directed their 
march towards London, and came in contact at „ 
Newbury, Berkshire, where a desperate battle ' ■i«*io' 
was fought till night put an end to the strife. 
The victory was undecided ; but the Eoyalist 
cause suffered much in the death of Lord Falkland, who, 
from his high character and great ability, was called ' the 
glory of his party.' This battle closed the campaign of 1643. 
While England was thus torn with civil strife, the 
Puritan party gave rise to a faction which in a short time 
became the most powerful in the country. In religion, its 
members were called Independents, and in politics, * root 
and branch men.' They were bitterly opposed to prelacy, 
and maintained that every Christian congregation was an 
independent Church of itself, and therefore free from all 
external control. They hated monarchy also as much as 
prelacy, and were desirous of erecting a republic. The 
leading spirit of this party was Oliver Cromwell, whose 
early life had been spent in peaceful pursuits in his native 
county of Huntingdon. As a member of the Long Parlia- 
ment, he was chiefly known as a man of homely manners, 
slovenly dress, and rough-and-ready speech. When the 
civil war broke out, he took charge of some horse, and 
soon gave signs of military skill and genius. During the 
summer of 1G43, while the Parliamentarians were being 
defeated in the south, he gained several advantages over 
the Royalists in the north. W^ith the eye of genius, he 
saAv the reason of the king's success, and the means by 
which it was to be overcome. Filling his regiment %\'ith 
men after his own heart, he subjected them to such dis- 
cipline that, under the name of ' Ironsides,' they became 
invincible in battle, and a terror to their foes. The success 
of the Royalists led the Parliamentarians, in the summer of 
1643, to seek aid from Scotland. The Scots promised to 



298 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

assist them on condition that they should subscribe the 
Covenant, by which prelacy had been abolished in the 
northern kingdom, and thus make the Church of England 
like their own. The Houses consented to do so, and en- 
tered into a compact which was called the Solemn League 
and Covenant. Soon after, the Assembly of Divines, con- 
sisting of 120 ministers and 30 of the Lords and Commons, 
sat at Westminster to regulate the affairs of the English 
Church according to the Presbyterian model. They drew 
up a Confession of Faith, a Catechism, and a Directory for 
Public Worship. Those clergy who refused to take the 
Covenant were ejected from their livings. About 2,000 
thus suffered. 

The year 1644 was favourable to the Parliamentary 
cause. Charles, in dread of the League with the Scots, 
had sent to Ireland for some troops. Five regiments, con- 
sequently, landed at Mostyn, North Wales ; but Fairfax, 
the leader of the Roundhead forces in the north, suddenly 
attacked them at Nantwich, and took many prisoners. 
(January 25, 1644.) In the same month, a Scotch army 
of 21,000, under the Earl of Leven, marched into England, 
according to the terms of the League. The Marquis of 
Newcastle, the commander of the Royalist army of the 
north, finding himself threatened in front and rear, re- 
treated to York, and was there closely besieged by the 
united forces of Fairfax, Leven, and the Earl of Man- 
chester. Charles was in the south contending against 
Essex and Waller, and defeated the latter general at 
Cropredy Bridge, near Banbury. (June 29.) Prince 
Rupert, however, had been sent with 20,000 men to raise 
the siege of York. Joining his forces with those of New- 
castle, the prince marched out of the city to give battle to 
the enemy on Marston Moor. The right wing was under 
his command, and in front of him on the other side stood 
Cromwell and his ' Ironsides.' The opposing wings rushed 
to the attack, but the personal bravery of the Cavaliers 
was no match for the stern discipline and stubborn, valour 
of Cromwell's troopers, and very soon Rupert and his men 
were seen in headlong flight. A similar fate befell the right 



CHAELES I. 299 

wing of the Parliamentarians, but, through Crom\Yeirs 
good generalship, the battle ended in the com- 
plete defeat of the Royalists. This victory com- - ,, - - ' 
pletely ruined the Royal cause in the north. 
York in a few days opened its gates ; and New- 
castle was entered by the Scots. 

Though disasters attended the Cavaliers in the north, 
Charles was successful in the south. Following Essex 
into Cornwall, he surrounded him between Fowey and 
Lestwithiel, and forced his infantry to surrender, while 
the earl himself escaped in a boat to Plymouth. A few 
weeks after, the king met the Parliamentarians from the 
north at Newbury, where another indecisive battle took 
place, but the advantage on the whole was in favour of 
the latter. (October 27, 1644.) Charles withdrew his 
forces in safety to Oxford, much to the annoyance of 
Cromwell, who afterwards blamed the Earl of Manchester 
for the indecisive results of the battle. 

While these things were going on in England, the 
Marquis of Montrose, aided by a body of Irish, v/as 
valiantly maintaining the Royal cause in Scotland. At 
Tippermuir, near Perth, he routed the Covenanters with 
great slaughter (September 1), and soon after took posses- 
sion of Aberdeen. 

The close of the year 1644 witnessed the trial and con- 
demnation of Archbishop Laud. The Scots hated the aged 
prelate for his interference in their affairs, and their influence 
at London at this time was sufficiently strong to ensure his 
destruction. After three years' imprisonment he was voted 
guilty of high treason by Bill of Attainder, though the 
judges had declared that the charges against him contained 
no legal treason. At the age of seventy. Laud, 
to the lasting reproach of the Long Parliament, • ' 

perished on the scaffold. Later in the same year, l"4o 
the Book of Common Prayer was forbidden to be ■^'^' 
used even in family worship. 

In January 1645, negotiations were opened at Uxbridge 
to settle the dispute between king and Parliament ; but as 
neither party seemed inclined to give way, the matter 



300 HISTOKY OF ENaLANB. 

ended in failure. The topics of discussion related to the 
Church, the militia, and the state of Ireland. The Com- 
missioners on the Parliament side demanded the establish- 
ment of the Presbyterian religion, full control of the 
militia, and the right of appointing the Lord-Lieutenant of 
Ireland. Charles, in spite of the advice of many of his 
friends, refused to sacrifice the English Church, or to give 
himself up, bound, as it were, hand and foot, to the will of 
his enemies. The treaty at Uxbridge was therefore broken 
oiF, and recourse was had once more to the fortunes of 
war. 

A suspicion had taken root in the minds of the Inde- 
pendent leaders that the Earls of Essex and Manchester 
were not sufiSciently determined in their opposition to the 
king. Cromwell and his party resolved to remove them 
from the command, and to model a new army. A Bill 
was therefore passed in Parliament, called the Self-denying 
Ordinance, by which all members of both Houses were 
to resign their commands in the army, or civil employ- 
ments. (April 1645.) At the same time another measure 
was carried, for the ' new-modelling ' of the army, by 
which the number of men was reduced to about 21,000, 
of whom the great majority were Independents. The 
command of this army was given to Sir Thomas Fairfax, 
but Cromwell, though a member of the House of Commons, 
was allowed to hold the post of lieutenant-general. 

The first encounter between the new-modelled army 
and the Eoyalists took place at Naseby, North- 
1 fizl«^ ' amptonshire. Prince Kupert commanded the 
right wing of the Cavaliers, and routed as usual 
the forces opposed to him, but he lost his ad- 
vantage by pursuing the fugitives too far. The king, in 
charge of the centre, was on the point of overpowering 
Fairfax, when Cromwell, having put to flight the left wing 
of the Royal army, hastened to the assistance of his chief. 
This movement decided the battle. In vain Charles called 
on his men to rally. ' One charge more,' said he, * and we 
recover the day ; ' but nothing could withstand the onset of 
Cromwell's troopers, and the Royal cause was irretrievably 



CHAELES I. 301 

ruined. Besides the slain, 5,000 prisoners were taken on 
the field, as well as all the artillery and baggage. The 
most precious spoil of that day was the king's cabinet, 
containing his private correspondence, which disclosed 
secrets more injurious to his cause than any victory of his 
enemies. 

Fairfax then proceeded to reduce the west, while 
Charles, attempting to relieve Chester, was defeated at 
Rowton Moor. (September 24.) The Koyal cause, how- 
ever, seemed successful in Scotland, where Montrose gave 
the Covenanters a terrible defeat at Kilsyth ; but shortly 
after he himself was hopelessly beaten at PMliphaugh. 

Fairfax, having subdued the west, proceeded early in 
1646 to invest Oxford, where Charles had shut himself up. 
On his approach the king set out of the city by night, 
and gave himself up to the Scottish army besieging 
'Newark. (May 5.) Here, though treated with ail respect 
by the leaders of the Scots, he was little else than a pri- 
soner. Their preachers, however, often insulted him to 
his face. Once during divine service one of them in a 
sermon before the king reproached him severely, and at 
the close gave out the fifty-second psalm to be sung : — 

Why dost tbou, tyrant, boast thyself, 
Thy wicked deeds to praise ? 

Upon this the king stood up and called for the fifty-sixth 
psalm :^ — 

Have mercy, Lord, on me, I pray, 
For men would me devour I 

This was willingly responded to by the soldiers present, 
much to the discomfiture of the preacher. 

The Scots, having broken up their camp at Newark, 
retired with the king to Newcastle, where negotiations 
were opened with the Parliament for the settlement of 
afiTairs. Charles again refused to set aside the Church of 
England. Proposals were then made to the Scots to de- 
liver up the king. The English Parliament guaranteed to 
pay them 400,000/. — their arrears of pay — if they would 



302 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

surrender his person. These terms were accepted ; and on 
receiving proper security, the Scottish army gave up 
Charles to the English Commissioners, and marched for 
their own country. This disgraceful act of greed and 
treachery was long remembered in the popular rhyme : — 

Traitor Scot 

Sold his king for a groat. 

Disputes between the Army and Parliament. Royalist 
Insurrections. Pride's Purge. Trial, Execution, 
and Character of the King. 

Charles was taken to Holmby House, Northamptonshire, 
where he was closely confined. As soon as the civil war 
was brought to an end, a struggle for supremacy arose 
between the army and the Parliament. The latter, tho- 
roughly imbued with Presbyterian principles, regarded 
with jealousy the power of the army, which was chiefly 
composed of Independents and other * sectaries.' It was 
resolved, therefore, to disband a part of the army, and 
send the rest into Ireland. The Independents, however, 
had schemes of their own to carry out, and were by no 
means disposed to submit to Presbyterian supremacy. 
They secretly communicated with the king, and oifered to 
restore him to power and dignity. Receiving an un- 
favourable reply, they resolved to take him but of the hands 
of the Parliament. This bold measure was undertaken by 
Cornet Joyce, who, with a strong body of horse, carried 
off the king to. the headquarters of the army, near New- 
market. (June 4, 1647.) Parliament, astonished at this 
military violence, proceeded to take severe measures against 
Cromwell, who- was suspected of being the author of the 
movement; but he escaped to the army, where he was 
received with great joy. The House of Commons was 
powerless to exert its authority, and it was therefore 
obliged to yield to military force. The army marched to 
London, and it soon becam« evident that the settlement of 
the kingdom rested in its hands. Charles was taken to 



CHARLES I. 303 

Hampton Court, and kindly treated by his new gaolers. 
They allowed him to correspond with his family and friends, 
and permitted him the free exercise of his religion. These 
indulgences, hoAvever, soon ceased. His refusal to accept 
terms of settlement from the military leaders caused an 
open breach with the army, and in the end cost him his 
life. The Scots, the Parliament, and the military were 
each negotiating with the royal prisoner, who thought by 
their disagreement to return to power untrammelled by any 
pledges. Loud and angry were the mutterings of the 
soldiery when the king's refusal of their terms became 
known. Finding Hampton Court no longer a safe abode, 
Charles fled to the Isle of Wight, with the intention of 
escaping to the Continent. Colonel Hammond, the go- 
vernor of the island, received him with all respect, and 
conducted him to Carisbrook Castle, where he was guarded 
more closely than ever. Here negotiations were again 
opened with him by the Scots and the English Parliament. 
In Scotland public opinion had undergone a great change 
since the king was delivered up to his enemies at New- 
castle, and the shame of that transaction made the Scots long 
to do something for him. They were, besides, jealous of 
the power of the Independents in England. On their pro- 
mise of military help, Charles declined the projDosals of 
the Parliament. The latter, in consequence, determined 
to hold no further correspondence with him, and he was 
at once placed in close and solitary confinement. In the 
meantime, at a meeting of the principal officers of the 
army at Windsor, it was resolved to bring the king to 
trial, and avenge the blood shed in the civil war by an 
awful punishment. 

The year 1648 saw another brave attempt of the 
Eoyalists on behalf of their unfortunate prince. There 
were risings in Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Kent, and Wales. 
The fleet in the Thames suddenly hoisted the Eoyal 
colours, sailed for Holland, and placed itself at the service 
of the Prince of Wales. The Scots, in the summer, invaded 
England under the Duke of Plamilton, and were joined by the 
Royalists of the north under Sir Marmaduke Langdale. But 



804 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 

tlie activity and vigilance of the English army frustrated all 
these movements. While Fairfax quelled the insurrec- 

tions near London, Cromwell marched to the 

1648 ' ^^^^^ » defeated Langdale at Preston ; and after 

^ ^ routing Hamilton, pursued him as far as Ut- 

toxeter, where he was obliged to surrender, with 
most of his forces. 

During the absence of the army from London, Parlia- 
ment renewed their negotiations with the king, in the 
treaty of Newport. Charles consented to accept all their 
terms except two, which demanded the punishment of 
some of his chief friends, and the renunciation of epis- 
copacy. The Commons, satisfied with his concessions, de- 
clared that there was now sufficient basis for a satisfactory 
peace. But the leaders of the army had long before 
decided to bring the king to trial and overthrow the mon- 
archy, and their return to the south gave the death-blow 
to the treaty of Newport. They immediately sent the king 
to Hurst Castle, and proceeded to clear the House of Com- 
mons of all members opposed to their plans. For this 
purpose Colonel Pride with an armed force arrested up- 
wards of forty leading Presbyterian members of Parlia- 
ment, and on the following day shut out about 160 others. 
(December 7.) This act of violence was called Pride's 
Purge. At the same time the House of Lords was closed. 
The remaining fifty or sixty members, all of whom were 
Independents, received the nickname of the ' Rump.' This 
remnant proceeded to nominate a High Court of Justice 
for the trial of King Charles on the charge of levying war 
against the people of England. The court consisted of 
135 Commissioners, chosen from the army, the Parliament, 
and such citizens of London as were favourable to repub- 
lican principles. But the majority of those named refused 
to act, and only about sixty answered to their names. 
Bradshaw, a lawyer, sat as president. On January 20, 
1649, Charles was brought from Whitehall to the bar of 
the ' High Court of Justice,' at Westminster Hall. As he 
drew near to the House, the rude soldiery received him 
with yells of vengeance. The trial commenced by calling 



CHAKLES I. 305 

over the roll of the members of the court. When the 
name of Fairfax was called, a voice from one of the 
crowded galleries shouted, * He has more wit than to be 
here I ' and when the deed of accusation was stated to be 

* in the name of the people,' the same voice exclaimed, 

* Not a tenth part of them ! ' The officer who commanded 
the guards ordered his men to fire at the place whence 
the voice proceeded ; but discovering the speaker to be 
Lady Faii'fax, the wife of the general of the forces, the 
order was not carried out. The trial lasted three days, and 
ended with sentence of death. During the whole time, 
the king behaved with the greatest dignity, and his forti- 
tude and serenity never forsook him, though he was sub- 
jected to many insults from the riotous soldiery. When 
one ruffian spat in his face, the captive monarch wiped it 
off with his handkerchief, and only said, ' Poor creatures ! 
for half-a-crown they would do the same to their father.' 
One soldier uttered a blessing upon him as he passed, for 
which his officer struck him to the ground. The king, 
observing the act, said, ' The punishment, methinks, ex- 
ceeds the offence.' 

After the close of the trial, Charles retired to St. James's 
Palace, accompanied by Bishop Juxon, and there prepared 
himself for his doom. In a few days he was taken through 
one of the windows of the banqueting house at Whitehall 
on to a large scaffold hung with black, and closely 
surrounded with soldiers. Two executioners in masks 
were in attendance. Bishop Juxon and a Mr. Herbert 
accompanied their unfortunate monarch. When the king 
was preparing himself for the block, the bishop said to 
him : ' There is, sir, but one stage more, which, though 
turbulent and troublesome, is yet a very short one. Con- 
sider, it will soon carry you a great way ; it will carry you 
from earth to heaven ; and there you shall find, to your 
great joy, the prize to which you hasten, a crown of glory.' 
' I go,' replied the king, ' from a corruptible to an incor- 
ruptible crown, where no disturbance can have place.' 
Then, turning to lay his head on the block, he said 
emphatically to the bishop, ' Remember I ' One blow of 



306 HISTORY 01^ ENGLAND. 

the axe, and all was over. The soldiers shouted at the sight 
of the dripping head, but the multitude burst 
^^' ' out into tears and lamentations. Immediately after 
the execution, Juxon was called upon to explain 
the meaning of the mysterious word ' Kemember ! ' 
The prelate replied that it was meant to enforce a com- 
mand which the king had given him, to exhort the prince, 
his son, to forgive his father's murderers. 

The public and private life of Charles I. present many 
points of contrast. Inheriting from his father a love of 
arbitrary power and exalted notions of the dignity of a 
king, he considered himself justified in using any means to 
defend and maintain his royal prerogatives. Double- 
dealing with political opponents, therefore, marked his 
public conduct, and this faithlessness was the chief cause 
of his disasters. In all other respects he had the qualities 
of a good prince ; and had his lot been cast in private life, 
he would have been a man of estimable character. His 
taste in literature and art was excellent, and his domestic 
life was that of a Christian gentleman. In his portrait by 
Vandyke, Charles is seen as a man of dark complexion, 
lofty brow, mild and mournful eyes, long curling hair, 
moustache, and pointed beard. 

Charles had three sons and three daughters. The sons 
were : Charles Prince of Wales ; James Duke of York, 
afterwards James II. ; and Henry Duke of Gloucester. 
The daughters were : Mary, married to the Prince of 
Orange, and thus the mother of William III. ; Elizabeth, 
who died at Carisbrook Castle shortly after her father's 
execution ; and Henrietta Maria, married to Philip Duke 
of Orleans. The queen, after the execution of her hus- 
band, married Jermyn Earl of St. Albans, and returned to 
England after the restoration of her son Charles. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

During the civil wars most of the fortresses in the king- 
dom, such as Pontefract and Nottingham castles, were dis- 
mantled. Puritan fanaticism, too, made sad havoc of many 
ecclesiastical buildings. Painted windows in churches, 



CHARLES I. 



307 



statues inside and outside, and even the monuments of the 
dead, were broken and defaced. The tax on landed pro- 
perty, and the excise — a duty paid upon home-manu- 
factured goods — were first levied by the Parliament to meet 
the expenses of the civil war. The Petition of Right, 
passed to check the king's arbitrary rule, was frequently 
broken by the Parliament during the commotions of this 
reign. Emigration was very active, until checked by royal 
proclamation. Barbadoes, the first English settlement in 
the West Indies, was colonised, and a settlement of Roman 
Catholics under Lord Baltimore was formed in Maryland. 
Among the improvements of the reign may be mentioned 
the introduction of hackney coaches in London ; the esta- 
blishment of a post office for the conveyance of letters to 
Scotland and a few of the chief towns; the application of 
pendulums to clocks ; the invention of the barometer ; 
and the first use of coffee in England. The Dutch painters 
Rubens and Vandyke enjoyed the patronage of Charles L 




Cavalier ; time of Cliarles I. 



308 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 
1649 A.D. to 1660 A.D. 



A Eepublic Established. 
Subjugation of Ireland and Scot- 
land. 
Battle of Dunbar. 
Entry of the Scots into England. 
Battle of Worcester. 
War with Holland. 
First Expulsion of the * Eump.* 



Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, 
Last Days of Cromwell. 
His Death and Character. 
Protectorate of Richard Crom- 
well. 
Convention Parliament. 
Monarchy Restored. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



A Eepublic Established. 

After the execution of Charles I., a proclamation was im- 
mediately issued, declaring it treason to give the title of 
king to anyone. The sole authority was vested in the 
mutilated House of Commons, or the * Rump,' wherein 
very seldom more than seventy or eighty persons sat. 
These voted the House of Lords to be useless and dangerous, 
and the office of king burdensome and unnecessary. The 
executive government was intrusted to a Council of forty- 
one members, of whom Bradshaw was president, and the 
poet Milton, Foreign Secretary. Cromwell and Fairfax 
directed the affairs of the army, while Sir Harry Vane 
controlled the navy. The new republican government took 
the name of * The Commonwealth of England ; ' and on its 
great seal was inscribed — ' The first year of freedom, by 
God's blessing restored 1649.' The * Commonwealth,' how- 
ever, was by no means popular Avith the nation. It was 
established by military violence, and the power of the 
sword alone maintained its supremacy. Thirty thousand 
veteran troops were needed to* keep down the reaction which 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 309 

liad commenced in favour of the unfortunate Stuarts when 
the king's head fell on the scaffold. The government of the 
country was in truth a mihtary despotism, and Cromwell, 
the successful captain and idol of the soldiery, was the real 
head of the nation. The Eoyalists, under this force, were 
prostrate in the dust, and the fines imposed upon them 
swelled the revenue to double of what it had been under 
Charles I. 

The Duke of Hamilton and two others followed their 
royal master to the scaffold, and an eminent Presbyterian 
minister, named Love, met with a similar fate. 



Subjugation of Ireland and Scotland. 
Battle of Dunbar. 

"While the English Cavaliers lay at the mercy of their 
conquerors, Ireland and Scotland were in arms for the 
Stuart cause. The former country, after the rebellion of 
1641, had for some time been in a state of wild confusion, 
and the civil war in England had prevented a sufficient 
force being sent there to re-establish a central government. 
At the time of the death of Charles L, there were five 
armies in the field, all acting independently of each other. 
All the fortresses of the island, excepting Dublin, Derry, 
and Belfast, were in the hands of the Marquis of Ormond, 
the leader of the Irish Eoyalists, and the authority of the 
English Parliament was on the verge of ruin. The task 
of subjugating Ireland was given to Cromwell, who, as 
lord-lieutenant, landed near Dublin with a force of 9,000 
men. (August, 1649.) A fortnight before, Ormond had 
been defeated at Rathmines by the garrison of Dublin. 
In six months Cromwell completely subdued the island as 
it had never been mastered before since Strongbow first set 
foot on its shores. His mode of warfare was similar to that 
which the Israelites waged against the Canaanites. His 
stem Puritan troops showed no mercy to the Papists who 
resisted their arms, and the war became one of extermi- 
nation. The campaign commenced with the siege of 



310 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 

Drogheda, which was carried by storm, sacked, and its 
garrison of nearly 3,000 men put to the sword. A 
1 A4.Q ' similar fate befell Wexford, and every place that 
offered resistance. Cork, and many other towns, 
terrified at the ruthless slaughter, submitted with- 
out striking a blow, and by May in the following year, 
Cromwell was enabled to return to England, leaving the 
care of Ireland to his son-in-law, Ireton. Limerick endured 
a fifteen months' siege; and on its capitulation, the authority 
of the English Government was supreme in the island. 
Numerous Puritan colonists settled down on the lands of 
those who had perished by the sword, or had been trans- 
ported to the West Indies, and Ireland thrived under their 
vigorous hands. 

On Cromwell's arrival in London, he received quite an 
ovation from the army and the heads of the City. The 
' Eump ' passed a vote of thanks for his services, and gave 
him the name of Lord-General of the Armies of the Com- 
monwealth. Scotland next required his attention. The 
Scots, on receiving news of the execution of the king, had 
proclaimed his son as Charles II. They invited the young 
prince to Scotland, and promised to maintain his cause, pro- 
vided he subscribed the League and Covenant. Charles, 
unwilling to become a Presbyterian, sent the Marquis of 
Montrose from Holland to attempt a rising in his behalf, 
independently of the Covenanters. That nobleman landed 
at the Orkneys with about 600 men, and after forcing some 
of the islanders to join his standard, marched into Fife- 
shire. Here he was met by a few Scottish troopers, and 
on the first attack, his unwarlike fishermen threw down 
their arms and fled. Montrose escaped with difiiculty, but 
was afterwards betrayed to the Covenanters. He was taken 
to Edinburgh, and there sentenced to be hanged on a gal- 
lows thirty feet high, his head to be fixed on the tolbooth 
or prison, his body to be quartered, and his limbs to be 
placed over the gates of the chief towns of Scotland. His 
enemies, out of spite, printed a book of his exploits, and 
ordered it to be tied round his neck by the hangman. The 
unfortunate nobleman bore all his indignities with the 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 311 

greatest coolness, and died like a gallant Cavalier, with such 
dignity and courage as to bring tears into the eyes of his 
bitterest foes. (May 21, 1650.) 

On the failure of Montrose, young Charles^ finding no 
other alternative, agreed to sign the Covenant, and landed 
at the mouth of the Spey, about a month after the j 
execution of that nobleman. He was joyously -lof^r^ 
welcomed in Edinburgh, but his life amongst the 
rigid Presbyterians was anything but happy. The 
long sermons of their clergy, their stern invectives against 
the iniquity of his father's house and his mother's idolatry} 
grated most harshly upon the feelings of a gay young prince, 
and produced such a dislike towards- the Presbyterian 
system that he never overcame his repugnance to it. 

The English Commonwealth resolved that Scotland 
should share its fortunes as a republic, and Cromwell, with 
16,000 men, was sent across the borders to prevent the 
establishment of a monarchy. On marching through Ber- 
wickshire and East Lothian, he found that the country was 
abandoned by the population, and stripped of everything 
that could support a hostile army. He was therefore 
forced to depend upon his fleet for a supply of provisions. 
The Scots, under the command of David LesUe, had en- 
trenched themselves near Edinburgh. They feared to meet 
the veteran ' Ironsides ' of England, and trusted that hunger 
would drive them out of the country. This policy of in- 
action succeeded, for scarcity of food brought on sickness in 
the English camp, and Cromwell was obliged to retreat to 
the coast to embark his sick. Leslie, with all prudence 
and caution, followed the retiring enemy, carefully avoid - 
iug a battle, and at length succeeded by skilfiil generalship 
in hemming him in near Dunbar. Cromwell, with the 
sea on one side and a range of hills occupied by the Scots 
on the other, saw little chance of escape, except by embark- 
ing his infantry, and cutting his way through to England at 
the head of his horse. While he was pondering these things, 
a rash movement of the Scottish army placed them in his 
power. The Presbyterian clergy who accompanied Leslie 
thought themselves better soldiers than their general, and 



312 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

insisted that he should go down into the plain and fight 
the English. When Cromwell heard that his foes were 
leaving their fastnesses, he shouted, ' God is delivering them 
into our hands ; ' and immediately proceeded to draw out 
his men in order of battle. At daybreak, as the sun 
showed his orb on the surface of the sea, Cromwell said, in 
the hearing of his men, ' Let the Lord arise, and let His 
enemies be scattered ! ' His veterans made short work of 
Leslie's raw levies, and in the Battle of Dunbar, 
-^ * ' the Scots lost 3,000 men and 10,000 prisoners, 
with all their ammunition and ordnance. Many 
of the captives were transported to the settlements 
in America, and sold as slaves. After this defeat, Edin- 
burgh opened its gates, and all Scotland south of the Forth 
submitted to the conqueror. 

Entry of the Scots into England. Battle of Worcester. 

Though the south of Scotland was in the hands of the 
English, the Scots refused to accept a republican govern- 
ment, and, to show their determination, they resolved to 
crown Charles. Just about this time, the prince, disgusted 
with the severity of his Presbyterian friends, attempted to 
escape to the Royalists in the Highlands, in the hope of 
raising an army to fight his own battles in his own way. 
Disappointed in his expectations, he was easily persuaded 
to return. This Start, as it was called, was of some use in 
causing him to be treated with more consideration. On the 
following New Year's day he was crowned at Scone, afler 
swearing to observe the Covenant. The king then joined 
Leslie's army at Stirling, which was strongly entrenched, 
and confronted by Cromwell's victorious troops. The 
English general at length crossed the Forth for the pur- 
pose of cutting off the supplies from the Scottish army. 
Charles, endangered by this movement, adopted the bold 
and decisive measure of invading England, hoping to rouse 
his friends before Cromwell could overtake him. But the 
English Cavaliers were unprepared for this enterprise, and 
were little able to give their prince any help. Charles, 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 313 

entering England at Carlisle, in three weeks reached the 
city of Worcester, where he was brought to bay by the 
pursuing enemy, and utterly defeated, in spite of ^ 
the gallant resistance of his men. Three thousand "^^ ^1- ' 
Scots lay dead on the field, and 10,000 were 
taken prisoners. Of the latter, 1,500 were given 
to the Guinea merchants to be employed as slaves in the 
African gold mines, and mo^t of the remainder were trans- 
ported to America and Barbadoes. Charles escaped from 
the field of Worcester ^vith some Scottish horse, and for 
a month wandered up and down the jMidland counties 
in various disguises. At one time he was compelled to 
take refuge in the boughs of a spreading oak-tree, whence he 
could see the red-coats of Cromwell's soldiers scouring the 
wood in pursuit of him. At another time he rode before a 
lady in the quality of a groom, while his friend Lord Wil- 
mot followed on horseback, with hawk on his wrist and dogs 
at his heels, under the pretence of sporting, but in reality 
keeping guard over his royal master. After many romantic 
adventures and hair-breadth escapes, Charles reached 
Shoreham, in Sussex, where he found a coal vessel, which 
landed him safely at Fecamp, in France. Though more 
than forty persons had been privy to his escape, and Par- 
liament had offered l,000Z.for his capture, not one attempted 
to betray him. 

The defeat at "Worcester was the death-blow to the 
Eoyalist party in Scotland, and General Monk, who had 
been left in charge by Cromwell, soon reduced that king- 
dom to profound submission. 

War with Holland. 

After the subjugation of Ireland and Scotland, a naval 
war arose between England and Holland. The govern- 
ments of the two countries had been for some time on a 
very unfriendly footing. William Prince of Orange, the 
head of the Dutch Eepublic, had married the daughter of 
Charles I., and therefore the proceedings of the English 
Parliament found little favour in his eyes. The Royalists 



314 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

found in Holland a welcome and a refuge ; and when Dr. 
Dorislaus, the English envoy, was assassinated, the Dutch 
allowed the murderers to escape. The Prince of Orange 
died in 1650, but the Government of Holland continued 
as unfriendly as' before. The English Parliament then 
aimed a deadly blow at Dutch commerce by passing the 
celebrated Navigation Act, which enacted that no produc- 
tion of Europe should be imported to England except in 
English ships, or ships belonging to the country which 
furnished the production. (October 9, 1651.) Ill-will 
ended in an open rupture, which was brought about by a 
disagreement between the English and Dutch admirals in 
the Channel off Dover. Blake, the English admiral, in- 
sisted that the Dutch should strike their topmasts to his 
flag, in acknowledgment of the old sovereignty of the nation 
over the narrow seas. Van Tromp, the Dutch commander, 
of course refused, and in answer to a shot from Blake's 
ship, fired a broadside at him. A general action followed, 
in which the Dutch were worsted, and lost two ships. 
(May 19, 1652.) "War was then formally declared be- 
tween the two countries. 

Blake obtained a victory over the Dutch in the Downs 
under the famous commanders De Ruyter and De Witt 
(September 28), but a month later Van Tromp, with 90 
sail, came down upon an English fleet of 37 near the Good- 
win Sands, and inflicted upon it a severe defeat. Blake 
fought on tiU darkness enabled him to escape ; while Van 
Tromp was so elated with his victory that he sailed up the 
Channel with a broom hoisted at the mast-head of his ship, 
to signify his intention of sweeping the English navy from 
the seas. But he altogether mistook the spirit and resources 
of the people with whom he had to deal. Early in the 
following year, Blake met him again off Portland, and 
commenced a running fight, which lasted for three days. 
(February 18, 1653.) At the end of this time, the Dutch 
loss amounted to 41 vessels and 3,500 men ; and on the re- 
turn of Van Tromp, crest-fallen and humbled, the people 
of Holland were bitterly disappointed. A few months 
later, their brave admiral tried once more the fortunes of 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 316 

war ; but off the North Foreland, he lost, in a battle of 
two days, 21 sail and many prisoners. (June 2 and 3.) 
He then withdrew to the Texel, where he was closely 
blockaded by the English fleet under Monk and Penn, as 
Blake was ill on shore. Here a battle raged for three 
days, during which Van Tromp fell shot through the heart, 
and most of his fleet were destroyed. (July 29.) This 
decisive action put an end to the conflict. 

War was concluded by the Treaty of Westminster, by 
which the Dutch promised to give no aid or encourage- 
ment to English Royalists, to pay the usual honours to the 
flag of the Commonwealth, and to pay the just claims of 
certain English merchants. (April 1654.) 

First Expulsion of the 'Rump.' 

In the last year of the Dutch war, another revolution 
took place in England. The remnant of the Long Parlia- 
ment had agreed in 1651 to dissolve itself about the end of 
the year 1654, and in the meantime to take measures for 
establishing a just and stable government. But after the 
settlement of the affairs of Ireland and Scotland, it became 
very jealous of the power of the army, and fearful of the 
ambitious schemes of Cromwell. It was therefore anxious 
to reduce the numbers of the soldiers before taking into 
consideration the question of its own dissolution. But the 
' Eump ' forgot that it had been placed in authority by the 
army, and that its existence depended upon the will of 
the soldiers, and when it urged the reduction of the 
military, its own power was immediately called in ques- 
tion. In this dilemma, the House of Commons, so-called, 
adopted the resolution of bringing into the new Parliament 
a number of Presbyterians, under the name of ' Neutrals ; ' 
but this proposal was most objectionable to Cromwell and 
his men. While the House was debating this 
question, Oliver entered, and after awhile stood April 20, 
up and addressed the members, rebuking one and 1653 
another for their self-interest and faults. ' But,' -^•^• 
said he, ' the Lord has done with you, and has chosen other 



316 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

instruments for carrying on his work that are more worthy.* 
A member complained of such language from their own 
servant. ' Come, come, sir,' said Cromwell, darting for- 
ward ; ' I'll put an end to your prating ; you are no Parlia- 
ment ; get ye gone I Give way to honester men.' Then 
stamping with his foot heavily upon the floor, the door 
opened, and the musketeers, who had been waiting for the 
signal, rushed in. ' Take him down,' said Cromwell, 
pointing at the Speaker ; and then upbraiding this member 
as a drunkard and another as an adulterer, he walked up 
to the table where the mace lay, and, pointing to it, said, 
* Take away this bauble.' Vane, the greatest of the Com- 
monwealth men, indignant at this violence, said, * This is 
not honest; yea, it is against morality and common 
honesty.' ' Sir Harry Vane, Sir Harry Vane ! the Lord 
deliver me from Sir Harry Vane ! ' was the general's retort. 
Having thus cleared the House, the doors were locked, and 
Cromwell, with the keys in his pocket, returned to the 
palace of Whitehall, where he and his family had taken up 
their residence. 

The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell. 

Cromwell, by the expulsion of the * Rump,' became sole 
master of the destinies of England. Eight leading officers 
of the ^rmy and four civilians formed with him a Council 
of State ; but to quiet the country, directions were sent to 
the ministers of churches throughout England to select the 
names of such men as were reputed * faithful, fearing God, 
and hating covetousness,' and transmit the list to the 
Council. In this way 139 persons were selected, to whom 
the chief authority was given for a term of fifteen months. 
This assembly contained many men of ability and dis- 
tinction, and was commonly called the Little Parlia- 
ment. It also received the nickname of Barebone's 
Parliament, from the name of one of its prominent 
members, called Praise- God Barebone, a leather-seller 
in London. It first met in July 1653, and proceeded 
to business with zeal, if not with wisdom. Its intended 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 317 

reforms were of such a sweeping description as to alarm 
all who had any stake in the country, and Cromwell him- 
self was so ashamed of the absurdity of some of their pro- 
posed measures, that at the end of five months he dismissed 
the Assembly. Its proposal to make marriage a civil 
contract, which might be entered into before a magistrate, 
was the only act that came into effect. 

After the dissolution of the Little Parliament, the 
Council of State proceeded to invest Cromwell with the 
power of a king, under the name of Lord-Protector. A 
grand procession was formed from Whitehall to West- 
minster Hall, where the Lord-General took his seat in a 
chair of state, surrounded by the judges^ the chief officers 
of the army, and the dignitaries of the City. There 
General Lambert, in the name of the -army and the three 
kingdoms, prayed him to take the office of Pro- 
tector of the Commonwealth. He accepted the ioko * 
dignity, and promised to rule according to a 
document placed in his hands, called the Instru- 
ment of Government, which provided that there should be 
a Parliament every three years, to sit not less than five 
months; that 400 members should be returned for 
England, and 80 each for Scotland and Ireland ; that an 
army of 30,000 men should be maintained ; that freedom 
of religion should be granted to all except Papists and 
Prelatists, and that the office of Protector should be elective. 
Cromwell then returned to Whitehall with regal pomp and 
power, preceded by the Lord Mayor carrying the sword of 
state, while the soldiers shouted and the great guns fired. 
Next day the Protectorate was proclaimed by sound of 
trumpet in the chief places of the City, as if a king had 
ascended the throne. 

In the following year a Parliament was summoned, 
according to the articles of the Instrument of Government 
But as it was not altogether favourable to the Protector's 
authority, it was dissolved after sitting five months. 
Cromwell now followed in the steps of Charles I., and ruled 
some time without a Parliament. Like that unfortunate king, 
he was driven to illegal acts of government to maintain his 
15 



318 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

authority, and became more hateful to the nation than the 
sovereign whom he had helped to destroy. Discontented 
republicans swelled the ranks of the Royalists, and intrigues 
and plots were general in almost every county; but spies 
kept him well informed, and every attempt at insurrection 
was at once nipped in the bud. To ensure the maintenance of 
his authority, the whole country was divided into eleven 
districts, and each placed under the command of a major- 
general with almost unlimited power. Resistance was 
hopeless ; men were fined and imprisoned contrary to law, 
and some were sent as slaves to Barbadoes. One plan 
only remained to upset this military despotism, that of 
assassination ; but Cromwell was too vigilant to be caught 
off his guard, and ' whenever he moved beyond the walls 
of his palace, the drawn swords and cuirasses of his trusty 
bodyguards encompassed him thick on every side.' 

The Protector's foreign policy was as vigorous as his 
liome government. He upheld the honour of England 
abroad in such a manner as to win the praise of his most 
bitter enemies. He dictated peace to Holland ; he destroyed 
the nests of pirates on the Barbary coasts ; he vanquished 
the Spaniards by land and sea, and took from them the 
island of Jamaica ; and he received from the French, for 
his help against Spain, the fortress of Dunkirk. Blake 
bravely maintained the honour of the English flag, and 
made it supreme on the ocean. The Protestants of the 
Alps sought Cromwell's protection against the persecution 
of the Duke of Savoy ; and the Pope himself, dreading the 
Protector's threats, was forced to moderate the religious 
zeal of popish princes. 

In spite of the well-known discontent of the nation, 
Cromwell, relying upon the influence of his major-generals, 
ventured to call a second Parliament in 1656. Above 
ninety members, duly returned by their constituents, were 
prevented from taking their seats because of their known 
opposition to the Protector's arbitrary government. In 
the following year the remaining members proposed that 
Cromwell should take the title of ' king ; ' and most likely 
he would have done so, if he could have relied upon the 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 819 

support of the army ; but wanting this, he was compelled to 
decline the honour. The Parliament, however, confirmed 
him in his dignity, and presented to him a new scheme of 
government, called the Humble Petition and Advice. 
According to this, he was still to retain the title of ' Lord- 
Protector,' with the right of naming his successor, and 
power was given him to create a House of Peers. He was 
inaugurated anew in Westminster Hall with all the pomp 
of a king, and an oath of allegiance was taken by every 
member of the Parliament to him sina:ly, without 

any mention of the Commonwealth. The new »«^„ ' 

1657 
House of Peers was composed of sixty members. 

A few were noblemen and country gentlemen, 

but the majority were officers of the army, of whom several 

were low-born, ignorant, and insolent men. Colonel Pride, 

for instance, had been a drayman, and another lucky 

officer a shoemaker. Early in 1658 the House of Commons 

reassembled, and the members previously excluded took 

their seats ; but Cromwell found it so opposed to his House 

of Peers that he angrily dissolved it. Henceforward, to 

the day of his death, the Protector ruled alone. 

Last Lays of Cromwell. His Death and Character. 

Cromwell's latter days were clouded with many cares 
and fears. Rojalists, Presbyterians, and disappointed re- 
publicans conspired against his life ; and though he vigo- 
rously suppressed every plot, yet the knowledge that his 
life was in constant danger made him morose and melan- 
choly. Pamphlets urging his assassination, and showing 
that with reference to him ' killing was no murder,' preyed 
much upon his mind. He wore armour under his clothes, 
carried pistols in his pocket, frequently changed his bed- 
roo-m, travelled with the greatest speed, always well 
guarded, and never returned by the same way, if it could 
be avoided. Domestic affliction, too, added to his troubles. 
The death of his favourite daughter, Mrs. Claypole, who 
on her sick-bed remonstrated with him for his past mis- 
conduct, pressed heavily on his heart. Anxiety and trouble 



320 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

at last wore out his strength, and a slow fever, ending 

Sept 3 ^" ^ tertian ague, carried him off, in the sixtieth 

1658 ^'^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^' ^^ *^^ anniversary of his deci- 

^ P^ sive victories of Dunbar and Worcester. He was 
buried with regal pomp in Westminster Abbey ; 
but on the accession of Charles II., his body was disinterred, 
and hanged on Tyburn gallows. Cromwell possessed talents 
of the highest order. He was gifted with military geniiis, 
energy, a strong will, and a keen insight into human nature. 
Though stern and unyielding in public affairs, he was most 
affectionate in his domestic relations, and his private life 
was free from reproach. In personal appearance he was 
heavy and clownish ; in manners and speech, rough and 
harsh. 

His wife, Elizabeth Bourchier, daughter of an Essex 
gentleman, bore him five sons and four daughters; but 
of the former, only two survived him, Richard and Henry. 

Protectorate of Eichard Cromwell. Convention 
Parliament. Monarchy Eestored. 

Richard CroniAvell, the eldest surviving son of Oliver, 
was proclaimed Protector, on his father's death, without 
the slightest opposition. A Parliament was summoned in 
his name, and on its assembling the old quarrels between 
it and the army broke out afresh. The leading officers, 
fearful of the loss of their influence, intrigued to retain 
the power of the sword, and one of them especially, named 
Lambert, hoped to take the place of the late Protector. 
Richard lacked his father's energy and ability, and was 
unable to withstand the pressure these officers put upon 
him. Under their advice, he dissolved the Parliament* 
It was then resolved to recall the ' Rump,' which had been 
expelled by Oliver Cromwell in 1653 ; but Richard, finding 
himself powerless to restrain the intrigues of the 
lana' ^"^ilitary cabal, resigned his office, after holding 
it five months, and retired into private life. He 
died in 1712, on his estate at Cheshunt, in Hert- 
fordshire. 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 321 

On the restoration of tlie Long Parliament, the old 
quarrel with the army revived. The leading officers wished 
to rule the nation through the House of Commons, and 
thus be the masters, and not the servants, of the State. 
Disappointed in this scheme. General Lambert, imitating 
the example of Oliver Cromwell, expelled the members by 
military force. (October 13, 1659.) The government of 
the country fell thus into the hands of the army, from 
which a ' Committee of Safety ' was elected to take charge 
of public affairs. 

Anarchy now threatened the nation, which seemed en- 
tirely at the mercy of military despots. The people, every- 
where in dread of the rule of fanatical soldiery, and heartily 
sick of a Commonwealth government, turned with longing 
eyes to the exiled royal house. Disunion in the army 
saved the country from military despotism. The soldiers in 
Scotland under General Monk, feeling jealous of the autho- 
rity assumed by their comrades in the south, resolved to 
interfere. Monk, at the beginning of the civil war, had 
borne arms for Charles L, but falling into the hands of the 
Roundheads at Nantwich, he attached himself to Cromwell, 
and by skill and courage obtained a foremost place in the 
Parliamentary army. On the overthrow of Richard Crom- 
well, he saw that England's safety depended upon the 
restoration of the. royal family; and suspecting Lambert's 
ambition, he resolved to march to London, on the pretext 
of supporting the Rump Parliament. In the meanwhile, 
this Assembly, taking advantage of disunion amongst the 
soldiers, had come together again, and awaited with some 
anxiety the arrival of the army from Scotland. Monk 
entered London at the head of 7,000 veteran troops (Feb- 
ruary 3, 1660), and declared for a free Parliament. As 
soon as this was made known, the whole nation seemed 
wild with delight. ' The bells of all England rang joy- 
ously ; the gutters ran with ale ; and night after night the 
sky five miles round London was reddened by innumerable 
fires.' The surviving members of the Long Parliament, who 
had been expelled by Colonel Pride in 1648, met again m 
Westminfcter Hall. (February 21, 1660.) They decided 



322 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

to appeal to the voice of the country by a general election, 
and in a few days finally dissolved themselves. Thus 
came to an end the famous ' Long Parliament,' which had 
existed with varied fortune for more than nineteen years. 

The general election, as was expected, resulted in a 
House of Commons friendly to the royal family. The old 
peers again took their seats. The Parliament thus formed 
received the name of The Convention Parliament^ because 
it was not called by the royal writ. This Assembly com- 
menced its sittings April 25, 1660, and on May 1, Monk, 
who had been for some time in secret communication with 
Charles, announced that a messenger from their exiled 
king was at the door. The news was rapturously received, 
and the envoy was at once admitted. He presented to the 
Assembly a conciliatory letter from his royal master, and 
a document called the Declaration of Breda, in which the 
king promised to grant a free and general pardon to all 
excepting such as Parliament might exclude ; to allow 
liberty of conscience ; to leave the settlement of disputed 
lands to the Parliament ; and to pay all arrears of pay 
due to the army. The Convention immediately decided 
to invite the king to return to his country, and a gallant 
fleet was sent to escort him from Holland to Dover, where 
he landed amidst universal rejoicing. (May 25, 1660.) 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

During the Commonwealth the Jews, after an exclusion 
of nearly three centuries, were permitted to return to 
England. The business of hanking was first practised. 
Previous to this time people deposited their money in the 
Mint in the Tower, but on account of the unsettled state of 
the country, they intrusted their money to goldsmiths and 
rich merchants, who thus became the first bankers. Bit- 
terly as the Puritans cried out against the religious intole- 
rance of the courts of Star Chamber and High Commission 
under Charles L, the Commonwealth men were not a wit 
more tolerant. One James Naylor, a Eoundhead army 
officer, was whipped, pilloried, branded, his tongue bored 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 



323 



tliroiigli with a red-hot iron, and sentenced to be im- 
prisoned for life for holding certain religious opinions. 
George Fox, a shoemaker of Drayton, in Leicestershire, 
the founder of the ' Society of Friends,' or Quakers, was 
also put in the stocks more than once, and imj)risoned 
for preaching. Among the improvements of the time may 
be mentioned the establishment of coffee-houses in London; 
the invention of the air-pump ; and the first manufacture 
of watches in England. 




Oliver Cromwell. 



324 



HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 



CHABLES II. 

Born 1630 A.D. Began to Beign 1649 A.D. Ascended the 
Throne 1660 A.D. Died 1685 A.D. 



The Eestoration. 

Settlement of the Nation. 

The Savoy Conference. 

Acts of the ' Pension' Parlia- 
ment. 

First Dutch War. 

Tlie G-reat Plague and Fire of 
London. 

Unpopularity of the Government. 

The Cabal. 

The Triple Alliance. 



Treaty of Dover. 

Second Dutch War. 

Test Act. 

Titus Gates and the Popish Plot 

Habeas Corpus Act. 

Whig and Tory. 

Affairs of Scotland. 

Persecution of the Covenanters. 

Tory Keaction. 

The Eye House Plot. • 

Death and Character of Charles. 



Miscellaneous Facts. 



The Restoration. Settlement of the Nation. 

Charles II. landed at Dover amidst the cheers of thou- 
sands of spectators, who wept with delight at the sight of 
their king. The journey thence to London was one con- 
tinued triumph. The country people flocked in thousands 
to the various towns through which his route lay, and 
everywhere flags waved, joy-bells rang out, and cannons 
roared. On May 29, his birthday, he reached 
-ioon' *^® capital. The army of the Commonwealth 
was drawn out on Blackheath to receive their 
king, but their voices for the most part were 
silent, and their faces sad and lowering. Disunion, how- 
ever, had destroyed their power, and they were helpless to 
stem the tide of royalty. The streets of London were 
lined with the city train-bands and armed bodies of men 
raised by loyal gentlemen ; the houses were covered with 



1660 

A.D. 



CHARLES II. 325 

tapestry ; gay banners cauglit the eye in every direction ; 
and a brilliant cavalcade of Royalists escorted the king to 
Whitehall. So great and general was the joy, that Charles 
observed, in his pleasant manner, ' It must have been my 
own fault that I did not come back before.' 

General Monk and other agents in the Restoration were 
rewarded with titles and honours. Monk was created 
Duke of Albemarle ; and the admiral of the fleet, Earl of 
Sandwich. Edward Hyde returned from exile with his 
royal master, and became Lord Chancellor, with the title 
of Earl of Clarendon. On the restoration of the king, 
the old civil polity was re-established exactly as it had 
been when Charles I. withdrew from London. All the 
Acts of the Long Parliament which had received the royal 
assent were confirmed. During the period of the great 
rebellion every department of the State had become sadly 
confused, and much required to be done to remedy the 
disorders of eighteen years. Four great questions for the 
settlement of the nation immediately occupied the atten- 
tion of the Convention Parliament : (1) the king's revenue; 
(2) disputes concerning property ; (3) Church matters ; 
and (4) a general pardon for political offences. 

An income of 1,200,000?. was settled upon the king, 
and the tenure of land by knight service was abolished for 
ever. This last relic of the feudal system, by which a 
landed proprietor had to pay into the royal treasury a 
large fine on coming to his property, had continued down to 
the civil war, and perished with the monarchy. It was now 
solemnly abolished by statute. About the same time the 
army, amounting to 50,000 men, was disbanded. The 
soldiers quickly settled down to peaceful occupations, and 
gave proofs of the rigid discipline under which they had 
been held, by the diligence, industry, and sobriety that 
marked their conduct as citizens. 

The settlement of disputes concerning property was a 
difiicult matter. Lands belonging to the crown, the 
Church, and private persons, had changed hands during the 
late troubles, and it was not easy to make restitution and 
redress. It ended, however, in the original owners taking 



326 HISTOEY OE ENGLAND. 

possession of their property, and leaving those who had 
bought lands to seek redress in the law courts. 

Church matters were in the greatest confusion. The 
old law declared government by bishops to be the rule of 
the English Church, while the Presbyterian system had 
been established by the Parliament during the civil war. 
The latter ceased to have any authority on the restoration 
of the monarchy, and the old law remained in force. It 
seemed therefore just that those Episcopal clergymen who 
had been turned out of their livings during the Common- 
wealth should be restored. The Convention Parliament 
had debated this question even before the return of the 
king ; and they decided to restore the ejected ministers, 
and confirm the Presbyterians and others then in posses- 
sion against whom there was no claimant living to dispute 
their right. It still remained to be settled whether the 
public service of the Church should be performed by all 
clergymen according to the Liturgy or their own consciences. 
This question was decided in the next Parliament. 

The Convention decided to bring to trial the murderers 
of Charles I. Twenty-nine were condemned, but only ten 
suffered the penalty of death. Among these were General 
Harrison, and Hugh Peters, one of Cromwell's chaplains. 
Some time afterwards three other regicides, who had been 
seized in Holland, were executed. Sir Harry Vane and 
General Lambert, though they had no share in the late 
king's death, were excepted from the royal clemency, and 
were condemned for serving a republican government. 
Their condemnation was unlawful, but they were thought 
men of too great importance to escape punishment. Vane 
met his death calmly on Tower Hill, while Lambert was 
reprieved and confined for life in the island of Guernsey. 
Neither did the dead escape the vindictiveness of the 
Eoyalists. The bodies of Bradshaw, Ireton, and Cromwell 
were taken from their tombs in Westminster Abbey, 
drawn on hurdles to Tyburn, hanged on a gallows till the 
evening, and then decapitated. Their heads were fixed 
on Westminster Hall, and their trunks thrown into a 
pit. The Convention Parliament, having disposed of the 



CHAKLES II. 327 

affairs requiring immediate attention, was dismissed at the 
close of the year. 

In Scotland, the Kestoration was hailed with as much 
enthusiasm as in England. An obsequious ParHament 
annulled all the Acts that had been passed since the com- 
mencement of the civil war. The Marquis of Argyle, who 
had placed the crown on Charles's head at Scone, suifered 
death for his share in the great rebellion. 

In Ireland, Episcopacy was restored, and the Church 
lands reclaimed, but many of those who had been dispos- 
sessed of their property never regained their rights. The 
Marquis of Ormond, who had fought so bravely in the 
cause of the Stuarts, became lord-lieutenant of that country 

The Savoy Conference. Acts of the * Pension ' 
Parliament. 

Religious affairs in England were in a sad state of con- 
fusion. Though the Bishops and ejected clergy had been 
restored on the king's return, and the Liturgy had again 
come into lawful use, the Independent and Presbyterian 
ministers, who were allowed to retain their livings, expected 
that such changes would be made in the Episcopal system 
and the Prayer Book as would satisfy their consciences. 
Charles, however, though he had promised to respect the 
scruples of the Presbyterians, detested their system, and 
was determined to establish Episcopacy in all its fulness 
To reunite the Puritans to the Church Establishment, a 
Conference was held at the Savoy Palace, in -.^ 
which twelve bishops and twelve leading Presby- ^„ 
terian divines discussed their differences. The 

A.D. 

latter urged against the ceremonies of the Church 
all the old objections that had been raised in Elizabeth's 
time. One of their number, Baxter, would not allow that the 
Liturgy could be amended at all, and proposed that one of 
his own composition should be accepted instead. The 
Conference, conducted with much bitterness on both sides, 
broke up in anger, and widened still further the breach 
between the two great religious parties in the State. 



•328 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

About this time Charles met his new Parliament, which 
was chiefly composed of Royalists, so great had been the 
reaction in the country. This Assembly lasted till the 
beginning of 1679, and earned the name of the ' Pension' 
Parliament, on account of the bribes many of its members 
received from the kings of England and France. After 
settling the rights of the Crown, its first Acts were directed 

Iftfil ^° crush the power of the Puritans. First came 
the Corporation Act, which struck at the power 
of the Dissenters in corporate towns, where their 
influence was very great. It provided that no person could 
hold any ofiice of trust in corporations unless he had taken 
the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper according to the rites 
of the Church of England within twelve months of his 
election ; and it enjoined all such persons to abjure the 
League and Covenant, and to take an oath against the law- 
fulness of bearing arms against the king. 

Next came the Act of Uniformity, which required all 
clergymen to declare publicly their assent and consent to 
everything contained in the Book of Common Prayer ; to 
receive ordination at Episcopal hands ; to abjure the Cove- 
„ nant ; and take the oath of non-resistance, on pain 

ifiRO ^^ being deprived of their livings. When the 
feast of St. Bartholomew came round, which was 
the last day fixed for taking the oath, nearly 
2,000 ministers, to their honour, resigned their benefices 
rather than submit to the Act. They were afterwards 
known as Nonconformists. It must be remembered that 
during the great rebellion a far greater number of Eoyalist 
divines were ejected firom their livings, but, on the whole, 
they were better treated than those deprived on St. Bar- 
tholomew's day. 

The Nonconformist ministers opened separate places of 
worship, much to the annoyance of the more intolerant 
members of the Eoyalist party. Rumours were set afloat 
that people attended these chapels for the purpose of foment- 

1 aaA ^^S conspiracies and insurrections, and, in conse- 
quence, Parliament passed the Conventicle Act. 
It enacted that all persons above sixteen years 



CHAELES II. 329 

of age present at any religions meeting, other tiian that 
of the Church of England, where five persons besides the 
family were assembled, should be imprisoned three months 
for the first offence, six for the second, and for the third 
be transported seven years. Six years later, a second 
Conventicle Act reduced the penalty on hearers, but in- 
flicted fines on preachers and those Avho allowed their 
houses to be used as conventicles. 

This intolerant and severe law produced, as might be 
expected, great discontent amongst Dissenters, but their 
disaffection only brought down upon them harsher measures. 
Accused of seditious practices, they were further ^ ^^^^ 
repressed by the passing of the Five-Mile Act. 
It forbade all Nonconformist ministers, who re- 
fused to take the oath of non-resistance to the king, to come 
within five miles of any city, corporate town, or borough 
sending members to Parliament, under penalty of fine and 
imprisonment. They were also prohibited from teaching 
in schools. 



First Dutch War. 

This war was occasioned by the commercial rivalry of 
the two nations. An ' African Company,' of which the 
Duke of York, the king's brother, was governor, came into 
collision with the Dutch settlements on th^ Guinea coast ; 
but this was scarcely any cause of war. It has been said 
that Charles desired hostilities, that he might have an op- 
portunity of appropriating a portion of the money voted 
by Parliament to his own purposes. 

War was declared against Holland in 1665, though hos- 
tilities had commenced in the summer of the previous 
year, when the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam, in 
America, since called New Yorh, was captured by an 
English squadron. In the spring, the Duke of York put 
to sea with a gallant fleet of 98 ships, and gained - -^^ 
a great victory over the Dutch ofi" Lowestoft. 
The victory lost one ship and 600 men, while the 
enemy's loss amounted to 18 ships, 4 admirals, and 7,000 



330 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

men taken or slain. In the following year France came to 
the help of Holland, and declared war against England. 
Prince Rupert was sent with a squadron to meet the Tou- 
lon fleet, and, during his absence, the Duke of Albemarle, 
with 54 sail, suddenly came upon a Dutch fleet of 80 ships 
oiF the North Foreland under the command of De Witt and 
De Ruyter. A battle lasting four days took place, and 
Albemarle was only saved from destruction by the timely 
arrival of Prince Rupert. (June 1-4, 1666.) The Dutch 
on this occasion had the best of the encounter, though the 
English fought so bravely as to win applause even from 
their enemies. ' They may be killed,' said De Witt, ' but 
they will not be conquered.' In the following month 
another battle in the same waters ended in a decisive vic- 
tory for the English, who followed the Dutch to their own 
coasts, and burnt in the harbour of Schelling 150 merchant 
ships. De Witt swore that he would have his revenge ; and in 
the next year his desire of vengeance was gratified. The 
money voted for the conduct of the war was diverted to 
support the extravagance of Charles's court, and the ships 
of war were left unrepaired and the dockyards unguarded. 
Early in 1667 De Witt and De Ruyter sailed up the 
Thames, and, meeting with scarcely any opposition, de- 
stroyed Sheerness, burnt the ships of war lying at Chatham, 
and advanced as far as Tilbury Fort. De Witt, having 
taken his revenue, fortunately retired with the tide ; and, 
until peace was concluded, the Dutch fleet swept the 
Channel unopposed. The war was brought to an end by 
the Treaty of Breda. (July 21, 1667.) 



The Great Plague and Fire of London. 

During the Dutch war London was visited with two 
dreadful calamities, a pestilence and a fire. The summer 
of 1665 was very hot, and the narrow streets of London, 
with their bad drainage and ill-ventilated houses, fostered 
epidemics. A few cases of plague had occurred in the 
previous winter, but as spring advanced, the disease broke 



CHAELES II. 331 

out with a violence unknown for three centuries. At the 
first alarm, the court, the nobility, and the rich citizens, 
fled out of London. The people followed in great num- 
bers, carrying infection with them to other places, till the 
authorities stopped the tide of emigration. Many parts of 
the city were deserted ; business was at a standstill, and 
grass grew in the streets. Every house containing the 
plague was closed for a month, and a red cross put upon 
the door, with the words above it, ' Lord, have mercy upon 
us ! ' The dead-cart went its dismal rounds at night, when 
no other sound was heard in the deserted streets save the 
heavy rumbling of the wheels, and the voice of the bellman, 
crying, * Bring out your dead ! ' The bodies were thrown, 
without coffin or funeral rites, into common pits in the 
neighbouring churchyards. The number of deaths in- 
creased with the autumn sun, till, in September, they 
amounted to more than a thousand daily. This - ^rte 
dreadful calamity drove the reckless into the 
wildest dissipation, while others waited their fate 
with calm resignation. The pestilence was ascribed to the 
wickedness of the times, and men might be seen daily 
going through the city pronouncing in sepulchral voice the 
awful judgments of God. The death-rates, gradually de- 
creased after the equinoctial gales, and in December Lon- 
don was declared free of the plague. More than 100,000 
are said to have perished in the capital alone, and a great 
number died in other cities and towns. 

In the following year London was visited with a fire such 
as was not known in Europe for many centuries. It began 
on Sunday night, September 2, in a baker's shop 
in Pudding Lane, near London Bridge. The 
houses in that locality were all built of wood, and 
the streets were narrow. A strong east wind was blow- 
ing, and the water-pipes were empty, so that everything 
favoured the spread of the flames. For three days the fire 
raged unchecked, till the whole city, from London Bridge 
to Temple Bar, was one heap of ashes, and a week elapsed 
before the flames were extinguished. More than 200,000 
people were rendered houseless, and forced to take refuge 



332 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

in the fields round London, where the lurid glare of the 
burning city turned night into day. St. Paul's Cathedral, 
eighty-nine churches, and about 400 streets, contain- 
ing more than 13,000 houses, were destroyed. The fire, 
though a dreadful calamity at the time, purified the city 
from the plague, and gave an opportunity for making 
wider streets, and buildings of brick instead of wood. A 
new cathedral Avas erected on the site of Old St. Paul's, by 
the famous architect. Sir Christopher Wren. The popular 
prejudices of the time ascribed the origin of the fire to the 
Eoman Catholics, -and on the Monument, raised by Wren 
to commemorate this calamity, an inscription to that effect 
was placed. This statement was only removed a few years 
ago. 

Unpopularity of the Government. The Cabal. The 
Triple Alliance. Treaty of Dover. 

The unbounded joy which hailed the Restoration was 
followed by general discontent. The Presbyterians were 
driven by disappointment and persecution to regard the 
government as a monstrous evil. A large body of Eoyal- 
ists, whose fortunes had been spent in the king's cause, 
were left unrewarded, and they complained bitterly of the 
in2:ratitude of a sovereign for whom they had suffered so 
much. The king's private life, besides, caused dissatisfac- 
tion amongst all right-thinking men. The court was 
known to be one wild scene of profligacy and debauchery, 
where virtue was a bye- word, and religion a subject of 
ridicule. AfiTairs of State were disregarded ; money which 
ought to be devoted to the good of the public service was 
squandered in vicious pleasures, and the national honour 
was sacrificed to wine, wit, and beauty. Dunkirk, won by 
Cromwell from Spain, was sold to the King of France for a 
trifling sum, and the war- ships of England were sent to sea 
leaky and ill-manned. The misery caused by the plague 
and the fire of London increased the general discontent ; 
and when an enemy's guns in the Dutch war were heard in 
the city, while the king was wasting his time in gaiety 



CHAELES II. 333 

and frivolity, popular indignation found vent in angry- 
murmurs. 

Charles found it necessary to appease the anger of his 
people by sacrificing his chief minister, Clarendon, to their 
wrath. That nobleman had directed the affairs of the king 
both before and after his restoration, and had become 
allied to the royal family by the marriage of his daughter 
Anne with James Duke of York. Though he had served 
the Stuart cause well, Charles did not like him. Their 
characters had nothing in common ; Clarendon's gravity of 
manner and religious principles were distasteful to a king 
whose whole life was one whirl of wicked pleasures ; and 
his remonstrances at court only raised up bitter enemies. 
The Cavaliers blamed him for the king's ingratitude ; the 
Presbyterians said he was the cause of their troubles ; and 
the House of Commons made him responsible for the 
disasters of the Dutch war. From all these enemies escape 
from ruin was impossible, and Clarendon, having fled from 
the country to save his life, was doomed by Act of Parlia- 
ment to perpetual exile. (November 29, 1667.) He spent 
the remainder of his years in writing the ' History of the 
Great Eebellion,' and died at Rouen in 1674. 

The ministry that was formed after the banishment of 
the Earl of Clarendon is known as the Cabal, because the 
initial letters of the names of five of its chief members formed 
that word — Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and 
Lauderdale. These advisers, by their dishonourable con- 
duct and efforts to overthrow the liberties of the country, 
formed one of the most disgraceful administrations in our 
history, and made the word ' cabal ' a term of lasting re- 
proach. One of its first measures, however, promised well, 
and tended to make the court popular. It formed a coali- 
tion with Holland and Sweden, called the Triple Alliance, 
for the purpose of checking the conquests of ^noQ 
France in Flanders. Louis XIV. was then on 

A.D. 

the French throne, and under his rule France 
became the most formidable power in Europe. It was the 
wish of his heart to extend his dominions towards the 
Rhine, and for this end he had entered upon a war with 



334 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 

Spain. The States of Holland saw with fear the victorious 
arms of France advancing eastwards, and they alone were 
anable to check the tide of French conquest. The English 
people viewed with jealousy the progress of their powerful 
neighbour, and the sale of Dunkirk and the part which 
Louis had played in the Dutch war increased their ill-will. 
The Triple Alliance, therefore, was most popular with all 
classes. In the face of this coalition, the French king 
reluctantly concluded the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, by 
which he consented to give up a great portion of the 
territory occupied by his armies, on condition of retaining 
Lille, Tournay, and other places in the Spanish Nether- 
lands. ^ 

Charles did not share his subjects' jealousy of France. 
From the time of his restoration he had always held the 
closest relations with the French court, and the changed 
feelings of the English people towards him tended to 
strengthen this friendship. A powerful body, called the 
Country Party, had been now formed in the House of Com- 
mons, which, disgusted with the licentiousness of the court, 
desired to check the king's extravagance. Charles could 
neither stand their interference nor their sneers, and he 
determined, if possible, to free himself from parliamentary 
control. For this end he entered into secret negotiations 
with the King of France for aid in arms and money, even 
when his own minister at the Hague was concluding the 
Triple Alliance. Louis, delighted at the prospect of re- 
ducing England to the rank of a vassal kingdom, sent over 
to London a handsome, licentious, and crafty Frenchwoman 
to inveigle Charles into his toils. Madame Carwell, as this 
woman was called, soon reigned supreme at the English 
court ; she was created Duchess of Portsmouth, and by her 
influence thoroughly succeeded in furthering the French 
■jyj- king's plans. The negotiations between the two 
1670 <^^<^w^^ ended in the secret Treaty of Bover. 
^ P There Henrietta, Duchess of Orleans, met her 
brother King Charles, and concluded this dis- 
graceful treaty, by which he bound himself to become a 
Koman Catholic and the ally of France against Holland, 



CHAKLES II. * 335 

and to assist Louis in his designs upon the throne of 
Spain. In return for such help, he was to receive 
annually a pension of 200,000Z., and the aid of 6,000 
French troops if any insurrection should break out in 
England. It was further stipulated that a part of the 
province of Zealand should be given up to England when 
the conquest of Holland was effected. This treaty, though 
suspected soon after, was not actually brought to light till 
the close of the last century. 

Second Dutch War. Test Act. 

The cause of the second war with Holland is to be 
found in the treaty of Dover ; but Charles assigned such 
reasons as commercial disputes and the refusal of the 
Dutch to honour the English flag. 

Before hostilities commenced, Charles was anxious to 
increase his fleet, and, by professing great zeal for the 
principles of the Triple Alliance, he obtained from the 
House of Commons a vote of 800,000/., and then instantly 
prorogued the Parliament. But as this was not enough 
for his schemes, he closed the exchequer, and refused to 
pay the money which bankers had lent to the Government. 
London goldsmiths had been in the habit of advancing 
loans on condition of receiving payment and interest from 
the revenue, and suddenly it was coolly announced that 
the principal could not be paid. Thus 1,300,000/. fell 
into the king's hands ; but many commercial houses were 
ruined, and trade was paralysed. 

About the same time, several proclamations were issued 
relating to matters which only Parliaments could deal 
with, and amongst these was a Declaration of Indulgence, 
or suspension of all penal laws in religion. This ' De- 
claration ' was proclaimed in accordance with the spirit of 
the Treaty of Dover, to favour Eoman Catholics, and it 
was received with suspicion even by the Protestant Dis- 
senters^ whom it also protected. 

Before war with Holland was formally declared, another 
most disgraceful act was done by the government. Though 



336 HISTOEY OF ENaLAND. 

the Triple Alliance was then in force, an English squadron 
was sent out to seize the richly laden Dutch fleet on the 
way home from the Mediterranean. The latter, however, 
suspicious of the honourable dealing of the English Go- 
vernment, were on the alert, and safely carried into port 
all their ships excepting four, Avhich became the prize of 
the royal pirate fleet of England. War was then declared, 
1 A70 ^^^^ ^ naval battle took place in Southwold Bay. 
in which the English, though successful, were 

AD O 7 D I 

severely handled. On land, a small English 
force Avas sent to co-operate with the French in an invasion 
of Holland. Town after town opened its gates, till the 
watchfires of the army of France could be seen from Am- 
sterdam. The House of Austria, in alarm, sent its troops 
to the Ehine to stem the tide of French conquest. The 
spirit of the Dutch arose with their danger ; and electing 
William Prince of Orange as their Stadtholder, the people 
rallied round him in defence of their independence. Louis 
was driven to act upon the defensive; the dykes were opened, 
and the whole country put under water ; and the invaders 
were compelled to beat a hasty retreat. 

Charles could give his friend little help. All the money 
obtained by fraud and pillage had been spent, and there 
was no other way of getting more except through a 
Parliament. This Assembly was called together early in 
1673, and at once opposed the king's home policy. Sus- 
picious of Eoman Catholic intrigues, it compelled the 
Government to withdraw the Declaration of Indulgence, 
and forced the king to consent to a famous law, called the 
Test Act, which continued in force down to the reign of 
George IV. This Act provided that all persons holding 
any office, civil or military, should take the oath of 
supremacy, should sign a declaration against transubstan- 
tiation, and should publicly receive the Sacrament accord- 
ing to the rites of the Church of England. This 
was a sad blow to the Eomanising tendency of the 
court, and the Duke of York and other Eoman 
Catholics were thus driven from office. The House of Com- 
mons then pressed the king to make peace with Holland, 



CHAELES II. 337 

threatening to withhold supplies if he should refuse 
honourable terms. Charles was therefore obliged to give 
up for the present all thoughts of fulfilling the treaty of 
Dover, and to make peace with the Dutch. By the Treaty 
of Westminster^ the war was brought to a close on terms 
very satisfactory to the English king, for he thereby re- 
ceived 200,000Z. in lieu of all claims. (February 9, 1674.) 
In the same year the ' Cabal ' Ministry was broken up. 
France continued the war till 1678, when it was concluded 
by the peace of Nimeguen. 



Titus Gates and the Popish Plot. Habeas Corpus 
Act. Whig and Tory. 

The alliance of Charles with such a powerful Eoman 
Catholic prince as Louis of France aroused the suspicions 
of his subjects, and increased their jealousy of Romanism. 
Rumours were also in circulation about the king's secret 
treaty ; and when the Duke of York openly avowed his 
conversion to popery, the people were ready to believe 
any story of Roman Catholic intrigues. A man of worth- 
less character, named Titus Gates, taking advantage of the 
state of the public mind, gave out that he had discovered 
a popish plot, which had for its object the assassination of 
the king, and the accession of James Duke of York, on 
condition of his aiding in the destruction of ^owq 
Protestantism. In the time of the Common- 

A.D, 

wealth Gates had been a preacher, and had after- 
wards taken orders in the Church of England ; but having 
been indicted for perjury, he was deprived of his cure. 
He then joined the Church of Rome, and resided some 
time on the Continent' in colleges belonging to the Jesuits. 
Here, no doubt, he heard many plans discussed for the 
recovery of England to the popish faith ; and though there 
was a conspiracy really in existence against Protestantism, 
as the secret treaty of Dover proves, yet Gates had no other 
ground for his reputed discovery than the hope of gain. 
Amongst those accused was Edward Coleman, the Duke of 



338 HISTORY OF ENGLAISTD. 

York's secretary. Search was at once made for his papers, 
and letters were found addressed to Father la Chaise, con- 
fessor of Louis XIV., which seemed to confirm the evidence 
of Gates. Just then an event occurred which favoured 
the story of the plot. Sir Edmonsbury Godfrey, the 
justice of the peace who had taken the depositions of Gates 
against Coleman, was found dead in a ditch near Primrose 
Hill, with a sword run through his body. His murder was 
at once ascribed to the Papists, and the whole nation was 
aroused to the highest pitch of excitement. London was 
one scene of wild alarm. Armed train-bands patrolled the 
city, and no citizen ventured into the streets without some 
weapon or other. So great was the panic, that the Eoman 
Catholic peers were for the first time excluded from Par- 
liament, and the gaols filled with Papists. Gates became 
quite a hero ; his story was everywhere believed ; he was 
hailed as the saviour of his country, and lodgings, with a 
pension of 1,200Z. a year, were assigned him at Whitehall. 
Allured by the hope of similar rewards, other disreputable 
characters, as Bedloe and Dugdale, came forward with 
fresh tales. Gn the evidence of this worthless band of 
informers, Coleman and several Jesuits were sent to the 
scaiFold. Gates even had the audacity to accuse the queen 
herself at the bar of the House of Commons, but the Lords 
indignantly rejected the charge. Amongst many who 
suffered for these imaginary plots, the last and noblest was 
the aged Viscount Stafford. 

Charles hoped to stem the tide of persecution by dis- 
solving the Parliament, which had sat for more than 
seventeen years ; but the new one was still more hostile 
and violent. Alarmed at the religious views of the Duke 
of York, the House of Commons proceeded to pass a bill 
for his exclusion from the throne. Charles offered to give 
any security for the P^-otestant religion which Parliament 
might think necessary, provided the succession to the 
throne should be left untouched. The Exclusion Bill, 
however, was pressed, but its progress was stopped by the 
dissolution of Parliament. (May 1679.) 



CHAKLES II. 339 

To this Assembly we owe the famous Habeas Corpus 
Act, which is considered next in importance to -^ 
Magna Charta. Under former sovereigns persons - ^^q 
might be imprisoned any length of time before 
being brought to trial. Thus Ealeigh and Laud 
remained in confinement for years. But the Habeas 
Corpus Act prevented this for the future. By its pro- 
visions, every prisoner had a right to be tried within a 
certain time after his arrest, and if once set free he could 
not be imprisoned for the same oiFence. It also provided 
that no inhabitant of England (unless by his own consent, 
or in case he have committed a capital offence in the place 
to which he is sent) should be imprisoned in Scotland or 
beyond sea. 

The dissolution of the Parliament only increased the 
excitement of the nation, and the people seemed deter- 
mined not to allow a Papist to ascend the throne. But 
there were many who supported the claims of the Duke 
of York, though they disliked his creed. They believed 
that the crown belonged to him by divine right, and they 
were prepared to maintain their opinions at all costs. 
These two factions became bitterly hostile, and in every 
town and village there were angry disputes, as in the days 
before the Great Eebellion. The opponents of the court 
were insultingly called Whigs, a word meaning sour milk, 
which had been fastened upon the Presbyterian rustics of 
the western Lowlands of Scotland. They retaliated by 
calling the ardent loyalists Tories, a name meaning give 
me, which had been given to the popish outlaws who 
infested the bogs of Ireland. 

In 1680 Parliament assembled, and proceeded at once 
with the Exclusion Bill. It passed in the Commons by a 
large majority, but it was thrown out in the Lords. It 
was after this defeat that Viscount Stafford was brought to 
the block. Further violence was prevented by a dissolu- 
tion ; but the death of this nobleman on the evidence of 
Oates and his accomplices was most serviceable to the 
court in assisting the reaction in its favour. 



340 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

Affairs of Scotland. Persecution of the Covenanters. 

Great changes took place in Scotland on the Eestora- 
tion. The Parliament of that country, as enthusiastic as 
that of England, willingly carried out the king's wishes 
with regard to religious questions. The Presbyterian 
Church government was overthrown, and the Episcopal 
system established in its place. James Sharpe, Presby- 
terian minister of Crail, who had been sent to London to 
look after the interests of the body to which he belonged, 
was persuaded to abandon his views, and was rewarded 
with the appointment of Archbishop of St. Andrews and 
Primate of Scotland. His example was quickly followed 
by nine others, who, like him, became bishops. So well 
were these changes received that even old Jenny Geddes, 
who had first given the signal of civil strife by flinging her 
stool at the Dean of Edinburgh's head, in 1637, con- 
tributed the materials of her stall and baskets towards a 
bonfire kindled in honour of the proceedings in Parliament 
and the king's coronation. After the excitement of the 
new order of things had passed away, many persons with- 
drew from the parish churches to attend the conventicles 
of the excluded ministers. The Episcopal courts, or Com- 
mission courts, as they were called, tried to check noncon- 
formity by fines, imprisonment, and corporal pmiishment. 
The Earl of Lauderdale, who had been a Presbyterian., 
was made Chief Commissioner.. The greatest opposition to 
the Episcopal system was found in the western Lowlands, 
and thither large bodies of troops were sent and quartered 
upon the people until all the fines were paid. These 
severe measures compelled the Covenanters, as the Noncon- 
formists were called, to seek out places on the moors and 
hills, where they might worship according to their con- 
science. At length persecution drove them into insurrec- 
tion, and about one thousand men marched to Edinburgh. 
General Dalziel, the Eoyalist commander, attacked them 
on RuUion Green, near the Pentland Hills, and quickly 
put them to rout. (November 1666.) About twenty per- 
sons were executed for this rising, many of whom were 



CHAELES II. 341 

previously tortured. Thumb-screws and the boot were 
the usual modes of torture in Scotland. The boot was a 
wooden case, into which the leg of the unfortunate victim 
was placed, and wedges were then driven down between 
the knee and the frame, until the whole limb was often a 
crustied and bleeding mass. The spirit of the Covenanters 
remained unbroken, in spite of the severities of the govern- 
ment. Religious meetings in secluded spots multiplied, 
and men attended them not only with the Bible in hand, 
but with pistol and sword to beat back the soldiery who 
often attacked their secret conventicles. The western 
counties were placed entirely at the mercy of the military, 
and to make matters worse, the rude Highland clans were 
brought down from their mountains to prey upon the 
Lowland farmers. This harsh treatment goaded the people 
to madness. In Fifeshire a band of twelve, while waiting 
near St. Andrews to attack one of their oppressors, met 
the coach of Archbishop Sharpe on Magus Moor, and 
suddenly resolved to murder him. The aged prelate was 
dragged from the carriage, and hacked to pieces in the 
presence of his daughter. (May 3, 1679.) This act of 
frenzy was followed by an insurrection. John Graham, 
of Claverhouse, whose dragoons were the terror of the 
country, set out from Glasgow to avenge the archbishop's 
murder. At Drumclog, near Loudon Hill, he came upon 
some armed insurgents ; but his men, fighting at a dis- 
advantage, were beaten back with loss. The Covenanters 
then marched to Glasgow, and took possession of the town. 
When news of this success reached London, Charles II. 
sent to Scotland as commander-in-chief his natural son, 
James Duke of Monmouth, at the head of a large body of 
the royal guards. The insurgents, to the number of 4,000, 
took post near Bothwell Bridge, to defend the passage of 
the Clyde. The battle was short and decisive. 

Four hundred Covenanters died on the field, and ^ ^„ ' 

167Q 
about twelve hundred were made prisoners. Of ■«■"'*' 

these a few were selected for execution, and the 

most obstinate of the remainder v/ere sent as slaves to 

Barbadoes. After this the Duke of York arrived in Scot- 

16 



342 HISTOKY OE ENGLAND. 

land to take the reins of government, and under hiin 
persecution increased in severity. The most stubborn of 
the Covenanters, who were called Cameronians, from the 
name of one of their preachers, boldly threw off their 
allegiance to the king ; but their conduct only increased the 
fire of persecution. Anyone refusing to renounce the 
Covenant was a suspected Cameronian, and might be put 
to death on the spot. The only escape from this bitter 
oppression lay in sullen obedience or emigration. Many 
set sail for the American colonies, while others waited in 
fear and hope for an end to their bitter trials. 

Tory Reaction. The Rye House Plot. Death and 
Character of Charles. 

The Whig party in the State drove many moderate men 
from their side by their attacks upon the rights of the two 
daughters of the Duke of York, who were zealous Pro- 
testants. It had long been rumoured that the Duke of 
Monmouth, the son of Charles II. by Lucy Walters, had 
been born in wedlock, and that if everyone had their 
rights he would be Prince of Wales. Charles, indeed, had 
brought him up with all the indulgence of a prince, and 
had married him while yet a youth to the heiress of the 
house of Buccleuch. Ho enjoyed the highest posts of 
honour in England, and nothing seemed beyond his reach, 
except the crown. Handsome in person, and polite and 
affable in manners, he won popularity wherever he went, 
and by the Londoners especially he was greeted with the 
greatest enthusiasm. Some of the leaders of the opposition 
to the court encouraged the popular belief in the legiti- 
macy of Monmouth, but this policy eventually swelled the 
ranks of the king's party. 

In 1681 another Parliament assembled at Oxford, where 
the Tory faction was most strong. The Whigs again had 
a majority in the House of Commons, and were escorted 
to the city by armed supporters, as if suspicious of foul 
play. The popish plot and the Exclusion Bill were their 
favourite themes of discussion; and the latter they were 



CHAELES II. 343 

determined to pass at all hazards. The only course open 
to the king was to dissolve the Parliament, and this was 
done within a week after assembling. A reaction in his 
favour had evidently set in. The fear first caused by the 
rumoured popish plot had passed away, and men began to 
be ashamed of their belief in the foolish tales of Gates and 
his accomplices. The king's determined opposition to the 
Exclusion Bill was warmly supported, and drew to hig 
side the great majority of the upper and middle classes of 
society. Charles soon felt himself strong enough to at- 
tempt to crush the Whig leaders ; and by employing in- 
formers of the same stamp as Titus Gates, he set the law in 
motion against his opponents. Their chief, the Earl of 
Shaftesbury, was accused of high treason, but the sheriffs 
of London, who were Whigs, named a grand jury which 
threw out the bill. Shaftesbury, in fear of his life, with- 
drew to Holland, where he died. The government, angry 
at the conduct of the London sheriffs, took away the 
charter of the city, on the plea of some irregularity, but 
really to prevent another defeat of its schemes. Many 
other towns lost their charters, and they were only restored 
on pajrment of heavy fines. 

These arbitrary acts of the Government provoked the 
Whigs to form plots for the defence of their fi:eedom and 
religion. Lord William Kussell, Lord Essex, Lord Howard, 
the Duke of Monmouth, and Algernon Sidney, all promi- 
nent leaders of the Whig party, meditated plans of open 
rebellion, and bided their time for action. Associated 
with these were men of fiercer spirit, who thought the 
shortest way out of their troubles was to assassinate both 
the king and his brother. Amongst this number was one 
Rumbold, an old officer of Cromwell's army, who lived at 
a place called the Eye House, in Herts. He suggested 
that it would be very easy to shoot Charles from this 
house as he was passing on his way to Ne^\Tiiarketj and 
the project was warmly received by the few desperate 
men who were privy to it. Thus there were -icoq 
two plots — one within the other ; but they were ^ j^ 
known under one name — The Rye House Plot. 



344 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

The conspiracy having been discovered, some of the 
vilest of those who had taken part in it hastened to save 
their lives by betraying others. Eussell and Sidney died 
on the scaffold, though they knew nothing of the plot of 
assassination ; Essex perished by his own hand ; Monmouth, 
throwing himself upon his father's mercy, was pardoned, 
and retired to the Continent ; and Howard saved his life 
by turning approver. The Eye House Plot ruined for a 
time the influence of the Whigs, and Charles was left at 
liberty to wreak his vengeance on all who had caused him 
so much humiliation in past years. The Duke of York 
resumed his public ofiices, in spite of the Test Act, and 
exerted all his influence in favour of severe measures. 
His zeal for the Roman Catholic religion caused the king 
to say to him one day : * Brother, I am too old to go again 
on my travels ; you may, if you choose ; ' meaning that 
the measures he advised would provoke an open rebel- 
lion. 

Charles one Sunday felt rather unwell, and the next day 
he was seized with an apoplectic fit, and died within a 
week. Bishop Ken attended him during his illness ; but 
the day before his death, the Duke of York privately 
introduced into the bedchamber a Eoman Catholic priest, 
who administered to the dying king the last rites of his 
Church. Charles breathed his last February 6, 1685, in 
the fifty-fifth year of his age, and was buried at West- 
minster. 

By his wife, Catherine of Portugal, he had no issue ; . but 
he had several illegitimate sons, who became the ancestors 
of some existing noble houses. In morals he was almost 
the worst king that ever sat on the English throne. He 
had no faith in virtue and goodness, and believed that 
every man and woman had their price. His court was 
seldom free from scenes of debauchery and disorder. With 
the dissolute, his gay disposition made him popular, and 
acquired for him the name of the ' Merry Monarch.' 
Though very fond of outdoor exercise, he was too indolent 
to attend to public business, and cared for nothing — neither 
public opinion nor national honour — so long as money was 



CHAELES II. 



345 



forthcoming to support his vicious indulgences. One of 
the wits of his court wrote the following epigram upon 
him : — 

Here lies our sovereign lord the king, 

Whose word no man relies on ; 
Who never said a foolish thing, 
And never did a wise one. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

Catherine on her marriage brought to her husband a 
dowry of 500,000/. and the settlements of Tangier and 




Charles II. and his Qnecn. 



Bombay; the latter was granted. to the East India Com- 
pany in 1668. The formation of some regiments, called 



346 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

Gentlemen of the Guard, now the Life Guards, was the 
first nucleus of a standing army, which at the close of the 
reign amounted to 7,000 foot and about 1,700 horse. The 
Eoyal Society, established in 1660, has done much for the 
advancement of science. Guineas were first coined in 
England in 1663, and were so named from being made of 
gold brought from Guinea by the African Trading Com- 
pany. A penny post was set up in London in 1681. 
Newspapers began to acquire importance in consequence of 
the rivalry of political parties. 

In 1682 Chelsea Hospital was founded for old soldiers. 
The State of Pennsylvania founded by William Penn. 

The Fifth-Monarchy Men caused some trouble at the 
beginning of the reign. They were fanatics who declared 
that Christ was on the eve of commencing His reign on 
earth ; hence th^eir name. Their excesses furnished one 
reason for passing the Conventicle Act. 



JAMES II. 



347 



Born 1633 A.D. 



JAMES II. 

Eegan to Eeign 1685 A.D. 
Died 1701 A.D. 



Dethroned 1688 A.D. 



Accession of James. 
Insurrections of Argyleand Mon- 
mouth. 
The Bloody Assize. 



Attempts to Restore Romanism. 
Trial of the Seven Bishops. 
The Revolution. 
The Interregnum. 



Accession of James. 

The members of the Privy Council were present in the 
palace Avlien Charles II. died, and within a quarter of an hour 
of his brother's death the Duke of York took his place at 
the board, with the title of James 11. He promised, on the 
word of a king, to maintain the established government both 
in Church and State, and especially to defend and support the 
Church of England. These promises were repeated on the 
opening of Parliament. The clergy loyally supported their 
new sovereign, and made known from their pulpits his speech 
to the Privy Council. The Tory party greeted his acces- 
sion with enthusiasm, while the Whigs looked on in silence. 
The new king soon put his Protestant friends to the test. 
Mass was at once celebrated in the queen's private chapel 
with open doors, that all might see ; and on Easter Sunday 
he went in great pomp to the royal chapel, attended by all 
the chief officers of State and the knights of the Garter? 

His coronation took place, according to the rites of the 
Church of England, on April 23 ; but by his orders the 
communion service and the ceremony of- presenting the 
sovereign with a copy of the English Bible were omitted. 
Addresses of loyalty poured in from all parts of the king- 
dom, and the new Parliament which assembled consisted 



348 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 

chiefly of enthusiastic Tories. The House of Commons 
voted him a revenue of 1,900,000Z. Secure of parlia- 
mentary support, his first thoughts were directed to re- 
venge. The men who by their lies had sent innocent 
Roman Catholics to the scaffold in the previous reign were 
marked out for punishment. Bedloe was already dead ; 
but Gates and Dangerfield survived to pay the penalty of 
their crimes. Gates, convicted of perjury, was sentenced 
to be pilloried and whipped at the cart's-tail from Aldgate 
to Newgate, and after an interval of two days, from New- 
gate to Aldgate. If he survived this pmiishment, he was 
to be imprisoned for life and pilloried five times a year. 
The miserable wretch outlived all these severities till after 
the revolution, when he was pardoned and pensioned. 
Dangerfield was also publiqly whipped, but on his return 
to Newgate, a man named Francis struck him in the eye 
with a cane, which, in addition to the flogging, caused his 
death. Francis was executed for this act. 

Insurrections of Argyle and Monmouth. 

Many persons implicated in the Rye House Plot had 
sought refuge in Holland. Thither also came many fugi- 
tives from Scotland, of whom the chief was the Duke of 
Argyle. These refugees thought that the accession of a 
Roman Catholic to the throne was a favourable opportu- 
nity for returning home and upsetting the government. 
Monmouth, Argyle, and their respective followers, met at 
Amsterdam and there arranged plans of action. It was 
determined that Argyle should forthwith make a descent 
upon the western coast of Scotland, and that Monmouth 
should make an attempt upon England. 

Early in May, Argyle landed in Cantyre, and sent forth a 
cross of yew, first set on fire and then quenched in the 
blood of a goat, to summon his clansmen to arms. Gnly 
1,800 answered to his call, and with these he marched 
towards Glasgow, saying he had come to suppress not 
only popery, but prelacy. His plans were marred by dis- 
union amongst his confederates ; and after achieving a few 



JAIVIES II. 349 

successes, his army was scattered in Dumbartonshire by 
the militia. In the disgnise of a peasant, and with one 
companion, he was seized at the ford of Inchinnan, in 
Eenfrewshire, while attempting to escape. He was taken to 
Edinburgh and beheaded on the sentence passed upon him 
in the previous reign, and his head was left to rot on the 
top of the Tolbooth. (June 30, 1685.) Argyleshire was 
devastated by the conquerors ; many of the Campbell clan 
were executed; and hundreds were transported to the 
colonies. 

In the meantime, Monmouth appeared oiF Lyme, in Dor- 
setshire, with three ships, containing about eighty exiles, 
well-armed and equipped. Landing at Lyme, he imme- 
diately issued a proclamation, charging James with many 
crimes, and stating that he had come ' for the defence and 
vindication of the Protestant religion, and the laws, rights, 
and privileges of England.' (June 11.) The little town 
went Avild with excitement ; men ran to and fro, shouting, 
* A Monmouth ! A Monmouth! The Protestant Religion ! ' 
and within twenty-four hours, fifteen hundred men had 
rallied round the duke's blue flag. Miners, ploughmen, 
and yeomen, came trooping in from all parts of Devonshire, 
and on the fourth day he marched to Taunton at the head 
of more than 3,000 men. There he was received with the 
greatest enthusiasm. Stands of colours were woven for his 
troops by the best families in the town, and a standard, 
richly embroidered, was presented to him by a train of 
twenty young ladies. At the same time a pocket-bible 
was put into his hands by the leader of the procession, and 
on receiving it, he said, ' I come to defend the truths con- 
tained in this book, and to seal them, if it must be so, with 
my blood.' The common people still continued to flock 
to his camp, but the nobility and gentry held themselves 
aloof. Assuming the title of king, Monmouth then marched 
to Bridgewater, where he was welcomed with royal honours 
by the mayor and aldermen. Advancing at the head of 
6,000 men to Bristol, the second city in the kingdom, he 
had reached Keynsham, only five miles from the town, 
when the approach of the royal forces, under Lord Fever- 



350 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

sham, compelled him to retire. Passing the walls of Bath, 
the insurgents hastened to Philip's Norton, and there ex- 
changed shots with the vanguard of the royal army. Though 
successful in this skirmish, Monmoutn fell back upon 
Bridgewater, closely followed by Feversham. The king's 
troops, to the number of 4,000, pitched their tents on the 
plain of Sedgemoor, about three miles from Bridgewater. 
Monmouth resolved to try the chance of a night attack. 
Advancing at the head of his men, he reached the moor a 
little after midnight, but his further progress was stopped 
by a deep drain, of which his scouts had not informed him. 
In the confusion that followed, a pistol went off. The 
report alarmed the sentinels, the royal drums beat to arms, 
and the men were soon drawn up ready for action. The 
rebel cavalry, under the command of Lord Grey, fled in 
confusion at the first fire, and the men who had charge of 
the ammunition, followed the example. Daylight came, 
when the duke, seeing his chance of success had gone with 
the darkness, mounted and rode from the field. His rustic 
army, though deserted and half-armed, stood their ground 
like veteran troops, till all their ammunition was expended. 
The royal horse then came thundering down on both flanks, 
but the rebels Repulsed them with scythes and butt-ends of 
their muskets. The artillery soon began to play on the 

insurgent ranks, and in a few minutes the Battle 
^Jq' of Sedgemoor was over. The rebels left more 

than a thousand dead on the field, and the victors 
* ' had three hundred killed and wounded. Sedge- 
moor was the last battle fought on English ground. 

Two days later, the unfortunate Monmouth, in the dis- 
guise of a shepherd, was captured in a ditch in the New 
Forest, with some raw peas in his pocket. On the road to 
London, he sent an abject letter to the king, begging in 
piteous terms to be admitted into the royal presence. 
With his arms bound behind his back, he appeared before 
his uncle, and, falling on the ground, he sued for mercy in 
the most cowardly manner. But his appeals were useless, 
and two days afterwards, he was brought out on Tower 
Hill, to meet his doom. The executioner, unnerved by 



JAMES n. 351 

the duke's request to do his work well, homfied the spec- 
tators by the failure of his blows. Five times the axe fell 
before the body ceased to move, and then a knife was 
requisite to sever the head from the shoulders. 



The Bloody Assize. 

The battle of Sedgemoor was followed by great brutality. 
Feversham immediately selected a number of insurgents 
for execution, and, on the following day, the road from 
Bridgewater to the moor was lined with gibbets, from v/hich 
dangled an unfortunate prisoner. The duty of further 
butchery was left to Colonel Kirke, a man of the most 
brutal character. At Taunton he hanged the insurgent 
rustics by scores from the sign-post of the White Hart Inn. 
It is said that his officers caroused in sight of the work of 
death, and drank the king's health as each victim was 
turned off, while the drums beat and the trumpets 
sounded, in mockery of the dying agonies of the wretched 
sufferers. 

But the cruelties of Kirke and his 'lambs,' as his soldiers 
were called, were nothing compared with the ferocious 
brutality of Judge Jeffreys, who was sent to try the captive 
rebels. His ' campaign,' as the king styled it, commenced 
at Winchester with the trial of an aged lady, named Alice 
Lisle, the widow of one of Cromwell's lords. She was 
accused of high treason for sheltering two fugitives from 
Sedgemoor. Though she stated that she was ignorant of 
their share in the rebellion, and there was little evidence 
against her, Jeffreys bullied the jury into a verdict of 
* guilty,' and she was sentenced to be burnt alive. The 
clergy of the cathedral remonstrated with the brutal judge, 
and petitioned the king in favour of the poor lady. All 
that could be obtained was a change of sentence. She 
was beheaded in the market-place of Winchester, and 
underwent her fate with Christian fortitude. This was the 
only execution in Hampshire. 

Dorchester was the next scene of the campaign. Here 
292 received sentence of death, but only 74 suffered. From 



352 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

Dorchester Jeffreys proceeded to Exeter, where only a few 
were to be tried. But in Somersetshire, the chief seat of 
the rebellion, 233 prisoners were in a few days hanged, 
drawn, and quartered. The judge seemed to gloat over 
his victims, and shouted and swore at them in the most 
brutal manner, like a wretch mad with hate and drink. 
The whole country presented a miserable prospect. Gibbets 
met the eye on every village-green and wherever two 
roads crossed, and dangling corpses, poisoning the air with 
their horrid stench, made the highways fearful to peasantry 
and travellers. "While these atrocities were in course of 
perpetration, James was amusing himself with horse-races 
at Winchester. After the close of the ' Bloody Assize,' he 
raised his zealous servant to a peerage, and made him Lord 
Chancellor. 

In addition to the judicial massacre, 841 prisoners were 
sentenced to transportation. These were bestowed upon 
the courtiers, who gained much money by traffic in pardons, 
and by the sale of prisoners as slaves for ten years in the 
West Indies. Even the queen herself took part in this 
liorrid gain, and Jeffreys made quite a large fortune from 
the numerous bribes he received. The young ladies of 
Taunton who had presented Monmouth with an em- 
broidered banner were given up to the tender mercies of 
the queen's maids of honour, and had to pay 2,000Z. as the 
price of their liberty. 

Attempts to Eestore Romanism. Trial of the 
Seven Bishops. 

The failure of Monmouth's rebellion encouraged James to 
carry out boldly the great wish of his heart — the restoration 
of the Roman Catholic religion. But he wanted a standing 
army composed of men ready and willing to support him in 
such an enterprise. The Test Act, however, prevented men 
of his own religion from taking service under the crown, and 
his first efforts were therefore directed to make this statute 
a dead letter. Parliament, though it voted him 700,000/. 
for military purposes, and was most devoted to the Stuart 



JAMES II. 353 

family, refused to sanction the appointment of Roman 
Catholic officers in the army. For this opposition it was 
dismissed in anger. James, determined not to be thwarted 
in his purpose, claimed the right of dispensing with the 
Test Act and other penal laws; and the judges, after four 
of their number had been removed, decided in his favour. 
An army was then encamped on Hounslow Heath to 
overawe London, Roman Catholic officers were placed 
in command, and every encouragement given to convert 
the soldiers to Romanism. Thus the first difficulty was 
overcome. 

The next step was the formation of a High Commission 
Court, similar to that which had been abolished by the 
Long Parliament. It consisted of seven members; its pre- 
sident was Lord Chancellor Jeffreys, and the affairs of the 
Church of England were placed under its control. (July 14, 
1686.) The clergy were then ordered to refrain from 
preaching against popery, and those who became converts 
to Romanism were protected by the king's dispensing power. 
Compton, Bishop of London, was suspended from his office, 
for neglecting to silence one of his clergy who had disobeyed 
the decree forbidding preaching against popery. Monastic 
orders were encouraged to settle in London ; Jesuits were 
permitted to open schools ; and the rites of the Roman 
Catholic religion were publicly allowed. At the earnest 
solicitation of James, the Pope sent a papal legate to the 
English court, and for the first time since the reign of 
Mary a papal nuncio was entertained at Wliitehail. Jesuit 
influence was now supreme at court; and the king pro- 
ceeded to get rid of all those councillors who refused to 
become Romanists, and to fill their places with men of his 
own creed. Thus Rochester, the Lord Treasurer, and 
Clarendon, Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, were dismissed 
from their office. Vacant bishoprics, too, were filled by 
men whose principles were supposed to be favourable to 
the king's design. It was now plain to the nation that 
James had no intention of keeping the solemn promises 
which he had made on his accession — of maintaining the 
Church of England — and the people's fears were excited. 



364 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Just about this time, unfortunately for the king's plan, 
Louis XIV. of France revoked the Edict of Nantes, which 
had given liberty of conscience to the French Protestants, 
and more than half a million of his subjects went into 
exile. Many thousands sought refuge in England, and 
their very presence and tales of suffering bore witness to 
the intolerant spirit of Romanism, and greatly alarmed the 
English people. In all the large towns the greatest excite- 
ment prevailed, and riots broke out in several parts of the 
country. 

Indifferent to these warnings, the king next struck a 
blow at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Early 
in 1687, a royal letter was sent to the Vice-Chancellor of 
Cambridge University, directing him to admit a Benedictine 
monk, named Francis, to the degree of Master of Arts 
without the usual oaths. The demand being refused, the 
Vice-Chancellor, with eight others, amongst whom was the 
famous Sir Isaac Newton, was summoned before the High 
Commission Court, and lost his office. 

Upon Oxford a more violent attack was made. Univer- 
sity College and Christ Church were already under Roman 
Catholic influence, and Mass was daily said in both these 
places. In March 1687, the President of Magdalene College 
died. The king sent a letter to the Fellows commanding 
them to elect to the vacant post one Anthony Farmer, 
a young man of bad character who had recently turned 
papist. The Fellows refused, and elected Dr. Hough. The 
High Commission Court declared the election void, and 
James himself visited Oxford, and attempted to frighten the 
college.au thorities into compliance. He commanded them 
to appoint Parker, Bishop of Oxford, as President, and on 
their refusal, the bishop was installed in spite of them. 
For this resistance to the royal will, they were all ejected 
from the college and declared incapable of holding any 
clerical preferment. Magdalene then became a popish 
seminary. The excitement in Oxford was intense, and 
threatened to break out into open violence. The clergy 
throughout the kingdom were highly indignant at this 
outrage upon the rights of the university, and in less than 



JAMES II. 355 

two years James was made to feel the folly of provoking 
sucli an influential body. 

In April 1687, the king issued on his own authority a 
Declaration of Indulgence, granting to all his subjects 
liberty of conscience. A year later, a second 
Declaration appeared, and a few days after an ^^qq 
order was issued, commanding the clergy to read 
it publicly during divine service on two succes- 
sive Sundays. Such an order was not only illegal, but also 
a studied insult to the ministers of the Church of England. 
The London clergy decided to refuse compliance, and the 
primate and six other bishops presented a petition to the 
king upon the subject. James was furious on receiving the 
document, and stigmatised it as a standard of rebellion. 
When the day came for reading the Declaration, the order 
was obeyed only in four London churches, and as soon as the 
minister commenced to read the document the people walked 
out of the place. The country clergy followed the example of 
the capital, and only in a very few places was the illegal De- 
claration read. The Nonconformists encouraged the clergy 
with all their might, knowing full well that civil and 
religious liberty depended upon the issue of the struggle. 
James was astounded at the opposition which he had 
raised ; but blinded by bigotry, he resolved to go on.- He 
determined to bring the seven bishops to trial in the Court 
of King's Bench for publishing a seditious libel, as he was 
pleased to call their petition. The prelates were first sum- 
moned before the Privy Council, and then committed to 
the Tower to await their trial. The banks of the Thames 
were lined with thousands and thousands of spectators, as 
the barge conveyiag the seven to prison swept past, and 
the river was covered with wherries. At the sight of the 
bishops the people gave vent to their feelings in loud 
hurrahs, prayers, and tears, and many rushed into the 
water imploring a blessing from the venerable pri- 
soners. • 

When the day of trial came, the prelates entered the 
court of King's Bench escorted by a crowd of nobility 



356 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

and gentry, while the streets outside were crammed with 
multitudes of people. The seven, whose names 
' will be ever memorable, were Archbishop San- 
croft, Lloyd of St. Asaph, Turner of Ely^ Lake of 
Chichester, Ken of Bath and Wells, White of 
Peterborough, and Trelawney of Bristol. Four judges sat 
on the bench, of whom one was a Romanist, and two 
others creatures of the court. The jury also Avas packed ; 
and everything was dooe to ensure the king's success. But 
the event disappointed his expectations. The jury, through 
the obstinacy of the king's brewer, was shut up all night, 
and in the morning gave the verdict ' Not guilty ! ' In a 
moment the court rang again with shouts of joy, which 
were as quickly caught up by the anxious thousands outside. 
On went the loud hurrahs east and west, till the joy-sound 
reached the camp on Hounslow Heath, where James was 
dining with Lord Feversham. The foolish king, on learning 
the cause of the shouting, said, ' So much the worse for 
them.' London that night was one scene of wild excite- 
ment. Bonfires blazed in every open space, around which 
carousing crowds drank health to the bishops and confusion 
to their enemies. The windows were lighted up with 
seven candles in honour of the prelates — a tall one in the 
centre representing the primate. 

Just before the trial, the queen gave birth to a son. 
Previous to this, the heir- apparent to the throne was 
James's eldest daughter Mary, a Protestant and married 
to the Prince of Orange. The people looked forward with 
joy to her accession to undo her father's work. They 
were therefore bitterly disappointed at the birth of a 
prince. They refused to believe it. They said it was a 
plot of the Jesuits to prevent the accession of a Protestant; 
it was an imposture ; anew-born child had been secretly 
introduced into the royal bedchamber, and handed round 
as the son of James. For years the majority of the nation 
thoroughly believed this story, and the unfortunate prince 
was never other to them than the Pretender. 



JAMES IT. 357 



The Eevolution. 



The trial of the bishops, the birth of a Prince of Wales 
and the evident design of James to destroy the Church of 
England, changed the feelings of the great Tory party, and 
brought into prominence the Whig faction, which had been 
kept in the background ever since the Eye House Plot. 
It was plain to all parties that England's liberty, civil and 
religious, depended upon the removal of James from the 
throne. The eyes of the nation had long been turned 
upon William Prince oi Orange, the king's son-in-law and 
nephew, and many influential men had asked him to come 
to the rescue. The time had now come for interference. 
The Whig leaders — ^the earls of Shrewsbury, Devonshire, 
and Danby, Admiral Eussell, and others — secretly sent a 
letter to Holland entreating the Prince of Orange to come 
to England with an armed force to save the country from 
popery and tyranny. Immediately preparations for the ex- 
pedition were set on foot. James, though informed by the 
King of France, would not believe that an invasion was 
intended until it was too late to prevent it. At last 
aroused to a sense of his danger, he assembled a fleet, 
called out the militia, brought troops from Ireland and 
Scotland, until the army under Feversham amounted to 
40,000 men. At the same time he tried to regain the 
goodwill of his subjects by showing favour to the bishops, 
by restoring the Fellows to Magdalene College, and by 
undoing all his other acts of violence ; but all these con- 
cessions come too late ; the people still looked wistfully for 
the first east wind to bring the deliverer to their shores. 

On November 1, William left Holland with a fleet of 
more than 50 war-ships and nearly 700 transports, contain- 
ing 15,000 soldiers. The east wind, Avhich blew his fleet 
down the Channel, kept the royal ships in the 
Thames : and in a few days he landed without °^* ' 
any molestation at Torbay, Devonshire. The ■■■"oo 
people, remembering Jeffreys' campaign, re- 
ceived him at first shyly, and the gentry for the same 



S68 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

reason held back. The prince advanced to Exeter, and 
entered the city without opposition. On the ample folds 
of his banner were the words, * The Protestant religion 
and the liberties of England ! ' Already his * Declaration,' 
stating that he had come to protect the rights and liberties 
of the people, to procure a free Parliament, and to 
examine the suspicions current about the birth of the 
Prince of Wales, was in every man's hand. The coldness 
of his first reception soon wore off, and the people, high 
and low, joined his standard in thousands. 

In the meantime James gathered a formidable army at 
Salisbury, and left London to place himself at its head. 
Feversham, however, advised him to withdraw beyond the 
Thames. But disunion and treachery were beginning to 
break up his forces. The very night James left the camp, 
Lord Churchill, the lieutenant-general, the Duke of Graf- 
ton, illegitimate son of Charles II., and several others, 
deserted to the Prince of Orange, and in the morning their 
example was followed by many officers. At Andover the 
king supped with his son-in-faw, Prince George of Den- 
mark, the husband of his daughter Anne ; but the same 
night the prince, the Duke of Ormond, and others, joined 
the invader. When James reached London, one of the 
first things he heard was the desertion of his daughter 
Anne. * God help me ! ' said he ; ' my own children have 
forsaken me.' London was in a riotous state ; in all parts 
of the country the people were rising for the Prince of 
Orange ; the Irish soldiers alone made any show of re- 
sistance, and James saw that all was over. His first object 
was directed to get the queen and infant prince out of the 
country. On a dark and stormy night, in the month of 
December, the queen and babe, under the charge of two 
faithful friends, stole down the back stairs of the palace, 
and crossed the Thames, in an open boat to Lambeth. 
The carriage, which was to take them to Gravesend, had 
not arrived, and the queen, fearing to enter any house, 
cowered in the wind and pelting rain, under the walls of 
Lambeth Church. The fugitives eventually reached Calais 
in safety. 



JAMES II. 369 

Within twenty-four hours after his wife's flight, James 
slipped out of Whitehall, early in the morning of Decem- 
ber 11, crossed the Thames to Vauxhall, and drove to 
Feversham, in Kent, where a hoy was waiting to take him 
to France. The vessel was just on the point of sailing 
when it was boarded by some fishermen, who, suspecting 
the passengers to be Jesuits, handled them rather roughly, 
and brought them ashore. The king, though disguised, 
was immediately recognised, and almost frightened out of 
his wits by the mob, who kept him for some days a close 
prisoner. Lord Feversham came down from London with 
two hundred guards to protect him, and under their escort 
he went back to the capital, where he was received with 
every demonstration of joy. 

The Interregnum. 

The Interregnum dates from the day on which James first 
quitted London (December 11, 1688) to the acceptance of the 
crown by William and Mary (February lo, 1689). As soon 
as the first flight of the king was known, London was all in 
commotion. William had not yet arrived, and no regency had 
been appointed. The worst characters of the capital, taking 
advantage of the general confusion, came out of their lurk- 
ing places, and aided by thoughtless apprentices, committed 
gross acts of outrage and rapine. Under the cry of ' No 
Popery ! ' Eoman Catholic chapels were sacked, and many 
private dwellings pillaged. The Jesuits who once haunted 
the palace, and others whose names had become notorious, 
sought refuge in flight or concealment. The detested 
Judge Jeffreys, disguised as a common sailor, and begrimed 
with coal-dust, was discovered in a low pot-house in 
Wapping, by a man whom he had once frightened in a 
law-suit. He was with great difficulty saved from being 
torn to pieces by the mob, and conveyed to the Tower. 

The Lords who happened to be in London formed a kind 
of provisional government, and tried their utmost to preserve 
order. In the midst of their labours, the news of the king's 
aiTest by the Kentish fishermen reached their ears, and they 



360 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

despatched Lord Feversham witli some troops to escort 
him to the capital. His return disconcerted the plans of 
William, who was then at Windsor. The prince had hoped 
to find a vacant throne and a people ready to bestow upon 
him the crown, but the king's presence was an obstacle to 
all his expectations. The difficulty, however, was overcome 
by a little tact. James was requested to retire from White- 
hall to Ham, near Richmond ; but as he was in doubt about 
his personal safety, he asked permission to withdraw to 
Rochester. Thither he went, attended by some of his best 
friends, who strongly advised him to stop in the kingdom, 
but, unwisely for his own interests, he turned a deaf ear to 
their counsels, and on the night of December 22, escaped 
in a vessel to France. He was hosjDitably received by Louis 
XIY., who placed at his disposal the palace of St. Germains. 

The Prince of Orange entered London on the day James 
left it. He immediately called together about seventy 
peers, who were then in town, the leading citizens of the 
capital, and some prominent members of former Parlia- 
ments. This assembly recommended him to summon a 
* Convention ' to settle the affairs of the nation. 

The Convention Parliament accordingly assembled and 

declared that James, having violated the constitution and 

withdrawn from the kingdom, had abdicated the 
Jan 22 . 

1 fiftQ ' *^^^<^^^" ^^ further resolved that it was inconsistent 

with the safety and welfare of a Protestant king- 
dom to be governed by a popish prince. The 
throne being thus declared vacant, the important question 
remained, By whom should it be filled ? This point was 
warmly debated by the two great political parties in the 
State. The Tories advocated a regency, but the Whigs, 
on the other hand, showed the necessity of filling up the 
vacant sovereignty. Others endeavoured to find a middle 
course, and proposed that the crown should be conferred 
upon Mary Princess of Orange, in her own right, thus 
passing over the claims of the infant Prince of Wales. 

William then made known his own opinions. He de- 
clared that he would not accept the post of regent, or take 
the government of the kingdom under his wife if she were 



JAMES II. 361 

chosen queen. If either of these plans were adopted, he 
would return to Holland. The only course left for the 
Convention was to offer the crown to William and Mary 
jointly. But before finally settling this question, the Com- 
mons drew up the celebrated Declaration of Rights, which 
set forth their late grievances, and asserted what were 
deemed the ancient rights of the people. Having thus 
vindicated the principles of the English constitution, the 
Convention drew up the Act of Settlement, which pro- 
vided that William and Mary should be king and queen 
of England for their joint and separate lives ; that the 
crown should be settled upon the children of Mary, then on 
the Princess Anne and her children, and then on the 
posterity of William. It further provided that any future 
sovereign becoming a Eoman Catholic, or marrying a 
member of that Church, should forfeit his crown, and that 
the Government should descend to the next Prctestant 
heir. On these conditions, the Prince and Prin- PeL. 13 
cess of Orange ascended the throne of England ; 1689 
the Eevolution was consummated, and the inter- a.d. 
regnum came to an end. 

James spent the remaining years of his life at St. Ger- 
mains, near Paris, where he was munificently maintained 
by the King of France. He died of apoplexy, in 1701. 
He was a/ar better man than his brother Charles II., but 
much inferior in intellectual power. Their points of dif- 
ference were well described by a court wit. ' Charles 
could see things if he would, James would see things if he 
could.^ James was a bigoted zealot; thoroughly honest 
indeed in his own religious convictions, but stupidly 
blind to the convictions of others. His love for arbitrary 
power and his injudicious zeal for popery cost him his 
throne. 

He was twice married : first to Anne Hyde, daughter of 
the Earl of Clarendon, by whom he had issue Mary and 
Anne, who both ascended the throne. His second wife was^ 
Mary D'Este of Modena, who bore him a son, James 
Francis Edward, known as the Pretender, and a daughter, 
Mary Louisa, who died young. • 



362 



HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 



Miscellaneous Facts, 

The revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) drove to 
England about 50,000 Frencli refugees, who improved the 
silk manufacture and many useful arts in this country. The 
Revolution released Dissenters from persecution, and se- 
cured the independence of the judges by making their office 
life-long. Sir Isaac Newton published his theory of the 
universe. Several charity schools were established in Lon- 
don and its neighbourhood. 




Costame : time of James n. and William III. 



WILLIAM III. and MAEY II. 



William.— Born 1650 A.D. Elected King 1689 A.T). 

Died 1702 A.D. 

Mary.— Born 1662 A.D. Elected Queen 1689 A.D. 

Died 1694 A.D. 



Settlement of the Nation. 



The Nonjurors. 
Afiarirs of Scotland. 
Massacre of G-lencoe. 
Affairs of Ireland. 
Battle of the Boyne. 



Treaty of Limerick. 



"War with France. 
Jacobite Plots. 

Partition Treaties "with France. 
Second Act of Settlement. 
"William's Death and Character. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



Settlement of the Nation. The Nonjurors. 

The Convention Assembly having been declared a proper 
Parliament, proceeded to settle the affairs of the nation. 
Its attention was first given to a settlement of the revenue. 
The House of Commons, taught by the experience of the 
last few years, was more niggard than in previous reigns, 
and only voted an annual revenue of 1,200,000/. For the 
first time in our history, it assumed the power of appro- 
-priating the supplies. It decided that half the revenue 
should be appropriated to the maintenance of the king's 
government and family, or what is now called the Civil 
List, and the other half to the public defence. 

It was impossible to maintain the new government with- 
out a standing army, but the * Declaration of Eights ' had 
declared a standing army in times of peace to be illegal. 
The mutiny of a Scotch regiment forced the question upon 
the attention of Parliament. It was decided to pass a 



364 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

Mutiny Act, to be renewed annually, which provided for 
the existence of a standing army, and subjected the troops 
to martial law. The military force of th^ kingdom was 
remodelled under the care of Lord Churchill, who was soon 
made Earl of Marlborough. 

The Nonconformists were allowed religious liberty by 
the passing of a Toleration Act. Unitarians, however, 
were excluded from its benefits, and the penal laws against 
Komanists remained still in force. 

Though the revolution had been completed without 
bloodshed, there was yet a strong minority of the nation 
opposed to these changes. The clergy of the Church of 
England had for years been preaching to their people the 
duty of passive obedience ; and hostile as James had been 
to them, they were unwilling to break their oath of alle- 
giance, and deny the principles which had hitherto guided 
their conduct. Many, too, were confirmed in these views 
by the favours shown to Nonconformists. Archbishop 
Bancroft, seven other bishops, and four hundred clergymen 
refused to take the oath of allegiance to William and Mary, 
and were consequently suspended. On this account they 
were called Nonjurors, and formed a party devoted to the 
exiled royal family. The supporters of James were generally 
called Jacobites, from Jacobus, the Latin name for James. 

Affairs of Scotland. Massacre of Glencoe. 

The Revolution was not so peacefully efiected in the 
sister kingdoms of Scotland and Ireland. The Convention 
Parliament in Edinburgh, following the example of Eng- 
land, had declared that James had forfeited the crown, and 
invited "William and Mary to ascend the vacant throne. 
But there was a strong party in Scotland, especially in the 
Highlands, opposed to these changes. Graham of Claver- 
house, who had been most active in persecuting the 
Covenanters during the last two reigns, and had been 
made Viscount Dundee, determined to rally the adherents 
of James and maintain the Stuart cause by force of arms. 
The Duke of Gordon held the castle of Edinburgh for the 



WILLIAM III. AND MAKY U. 365 

exiled house. Dundee mustered about 3,000 Highlanders, 
and attacked General Mackay at the pass of 
Killicrankie, in Perthshire. The Highlanders ^/qq' 
carried everything before them ; Mackay escaped 
with difficulty at the head of a few horse, leaving 
2,000 of his men killed or prisoners ; but the victory cost 
the life of Dundee, who fell mortally wounded whilst head- 
ing the final charge. After the death of Dundee, the 
Highlanders dispersed to their mountain homes ; Gordon 
surrendered the castle of Edinburgh, and by the end of 
the year the authority of the new sovereigns was generally 
acknowledged in Scotland. 

Among some of the Highland clans the spirit of re- 
bellion smouldered for months. The government thought 
it advisable to spend some twelve or fifteen thousand 
pounds in quieting these troublesome mountaineers, and 
the Earl of Breadalbane was deputed to distribute this 
money. In addition to Breadalbane's mission, the autho- 
rities at Edinburgh issued a proclamation exhorting the 
clans to submit to King William and Queen Mary, and 
promising pardon to every rebel who, on or before Decem- 
ber 31, 1691, should take the oath of allegiance to their 
majesties. Before the time fixed all the clans had taken 
the oaths except the Macdonalds of Glencoe. This tribe 
lived under their chief Maclan in a wild mountain glen 
on the western coast, between Argyleshire and Inverness- 
shire, and numbered in all about two hundred souls. Like 
the Highlanders in general, the Macdonalds lived as much 
by robbery as by honest labour. Not far from their 
rugged home lay the lands of the hostile tribe of Campbell, 
and many a time Maclan's men came down on plundering 
expeditions into the domains of their neighbours. Breadal- 
bane, as a member of the Campbell clan, bore no goodwill 
to the Macdonalds. From him Maclan saw there Avas 
little chance of getting any of the English gold, and he 
determined to refuse the oath of allegiance. But on the 
last day of December, the old chief, thinking better of the 
matter, repaired to Fort William, accompanied by his chief 
vassals, and offered to take the oaths. To his dismay, 
17 



366 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

there was no one there competent to administer them. 
The nearest magistrate was at Inverary, and thither Mac- 
Ian and his followers hurried. But the snow lay thick on 
the hills, and travelling was slow and difficult. A week 
nearly elapsed before the old chief reached Inverary, and 
after much persuasion he induced the sheriff to take his 
oath and give him a certificate. Maclan then returned 
home, thinking himself safe under the protection of the 
government to which he had sworn allegiance. But a 
cruel conspiracy was being formed against him and his 
people. The Master of Stair, who was at the head of the 
government of Scotland, bore a deadly hatred to the Mac- 
donalds, and in concert with their enemies, Breadalbane 
and Argyle, he formed a plan for their destruction. The 
certificate of Maclan's submission was suppressed ; he was 
reported to the king as the chief cause of all the tur- 
bulence of the Highlands ; and thus a royal order was 
obtained to extirpate the clan as ' a set of thieves.' 

On February 1, 1692, one hundred and twenty soldiers, 
most of whom were Campbells, marched to Glencoe. 
They were commanded by Captain Campbell, called in 
Scotland Glenlyon, whose niece had been married to one 
of Maclan's sons. Four hundred other troops were to 
follow in a few days to stop up all the passes of the glen ; 
but Glenlyon's orders were to wait till the morning of 
February 13, and then strike down every Macdonald 
under seventy years of age. For twelve days the soldiers 
lived amongst their destined victims as the best of friends. 
The very night before the massacre Glenlyon supped and 
played cards with those whom he intended to butcher in 
the morning. Five o'clock was the hour fixed for the 
deed of blood. Long before daybreak thirty-eight of the 
clan, among whom was the old chief, lay dead on the 
dunghills before their doors. The rest fled half-naked to 
the hills at the sound of the first shots, where they suiFered 
terribly from cold and hunger. When the survivors crept 
back to the glen, their homes lay a smouldering heap, 
their cattle had gone with the destroyer, and the ghastly 
corpses of their kinsmen struck terror into their souls. 



WILLIAM III. AND MAKY n. 367 

The Massacre of Glencoe remained unknown in all its 
horrid details for more than a year, when the secret press 
of the Jacobites proclaimed it to the world. At first it 
was regarded as an invention of William's enemies, till a 
royal commission appointed three years afterwards, at the 
urgent wish of the Scottish nation, revealed the truth of 
the story. The outrage brought down upon William's 
government a burst of execration. The king tried to 
excuse himself by saying he was not aware of the full 
purport of the warrant, which he had signed in the press 
of business. The parties immediately concerned in the 
massacre escaped all punishment except the stings of con- 
science and the detestation of their fellow-men. 

Affairs of Ireland. Battle of the Boyne. Treaty 
of Limerick. 

Ireland, being chiefly Roman Catholic, warmly upheld 
the cause of James. The Lord-Lieutenant Tyrconnel 
had under his command an army of devoted Papists. 
James landed at Kinsale with money and supplies from 
the King of France, and advanced to Dublin. (March 12, 
1689.) His authority was acknowledged everywhere ex- 
cept in the chief towns of Ulster, where alone the Protes- 
tants were in any force. After holding a Parliament in 
Dublin, which decided to suppress the Protestant religion 
and forfeit the goods of those opposed to popery, James 
marched his forces against Londonderry. The siege of 
this town will ever remain memorable for the valour and 
endui'ance of its inhabitants, who took for their motto the 
long-celebrated cry of ' No surrender ! ' Though their forti- 
fications were weak, and the supply of cannon, powder, and 
provisions small, for four months they repelled every attack 
of the besiegers. Much of this credit is due to a clergyman 
named George Walker, who had raised a regiment in the 
Protestant cause. After the people had eaten all the horses, 
dogs, cats, rats, mice, tallow, starch, &c. in the town, and 
when famine was at its height, some English ships broke 
through the obstructions in the river, and saved the city. 



368 HISTOEY OF EJSaLAND. 

The same night the enemy raised the siege, having lost 
before the heroic town more than 8,000 men. 

On the same day the Protestants of Enniskillen defeated 
some Irish troops at Newton Butler. 

In August, Marshal Schomberg landed in the north with 
16,000 men, and took and sacked Carrickfergus. In the fol- 
lowing spring he was joined by William, who, at the head 
of 36,000 men, marched south to Dublin. James, reinforced 
by 6,000 French, took up a position on the river Boyne, 
not far from Drogheda. The Battle of the 
■. gQ/>' Boyne brought defeat to his army, with a loss 

. _- of 1,500 men. James himself hurried off to 

A.D. ' 

Waterford, and thence to France. The victors 
lost about 500 men, amongst whom were Schomberg, and 
Walker, the brave defender of Londonderry. 

After this victory William soon made himself master of 
the southern part of the island, but the w^est still held out. 
The completion of the war was left in the hands of the 
Dutch general Ginckle, who commenced the next cam- 
paign with the capture of Athlone, a strong town on the 
Shannon. This success was followed up by an obstinate 
battle with the Irish under the command of the 
1 fiQl' -^^^^^^ general St. Euth, at Ag^hrin. St. Euth 
was struck down by a cannon-ball, whilst gal- 
lantly heading a charge, and his army, on the 
death of its leader, broke and fled. At Limerick they made 
their last stand. Ginckle laid siege to the town, which, 
after six weeks, surrendered on favourable terms. 
ct. 3, rj^Y^^ Treaty of Limerick brought the struggle 
to an end. By its provisions the Eoman Catholics 
were allowed the same religious privileges as 
in the reign of Charles II. ; their lands were guaranteed 
to all who would submit to William ; and those who chose 
might leave the island. In accordance Avith the treat}^ 
about 12,000 Irish troops embarked for France under their 
brave leader, Patrick Sarsfield. They were subsequently 
known as the * Irish Brigade,' and played a most important 
part in the French wars. 

The Parliament which assembled in DubHn after these 



WILLIAM III. AND MAKY IL 369 

events passed the severest measures against Eomanists. 
More than a million acres of land were confiscated, in spite 
of the treaty of Limerick, and lavishly distributed amongst 
English grandees. 

The victorious party saw no safety for its rule except in 
a system of oppression worthy of the most barbarous ages. 
Everything was done with a view to stamp out the Eoman 
Catholic religion. No Papist could be a schoolmaster, a 
guardian of any child, or a solicitor ; intermarriages with 
Protestants were forbidden ; no Papist could possess land 
by descent or otherwise ; and no arms could be retained. 
In addition to these, the most stringent measures were 
sanctioned in reference to the Roman Catholic clergy. A 
policy so harsh succeeded in crushing out the spirit of re- 
sistance, but it left a legacy of bitter hatred to English rule. 

War with France. 

Louis XIV., King of France, had long been considered 
the champion prince of the Eoman Catholic religion. His 
great ambition, however, had caused several of the continental 
powers to form the League of Augsburg for mutual defence 
against the aggressions of France. "William, when he be- 
came king, had little difficulty in persuading the English 
Parliament to join the confederacy against Louis. The 
support given to James in Ireland was sufficient pretext for 
a quarrel, and so war was declared May 7, 1689. 

Home affairs prevented any active operations till the 
following year, when Marlborough was sent with some 
forces to join the Dutch. In the same year, the combined 
fleets of England and Holland, under Admiral Torrington, 
were defeated by the French off Beachy Head. (June 30, 
1690.) The English retreated to the Thames, and left the 
victors masters of the Channel. In 1691, "William went 
over to Holland with an English army, but the campaign 
was spent in marching and countermarching. During 
this time some of the leading men in "William's government 
were corresponding with James. Even Marlborough, who 
held a high military command, and Eussell, the Treasurer 



370 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

of the Navy, who had been appointed admiral of the com- 
bined fleets of England and Holland, were in secret corre- 
spondence with the court of St. Germains. By such traitors 
the plans of William and his allies were made known to 
the French king. James, excited by the promises of his 
Jacobite friends in England, persuaded Louis to assist him 
in an invasion of the country. The * Irish Brigade,' num- 
bering 20,000 men, and 10,000 French troops, were drawn 
up at Cotentin, near La Hogue, ready to be convoyed across 
the Channel by the French fleet. In the meantime, Marl- 
borough's treachery was disclosed, and disgrace immediately 
befell him and several others. Queen Mary, who had been 
lefl in charge of the government while her husband was on 
the Continent, was greatly alarmed by the rumours of Jaco- 
bite conspiracies. In the coffee-houses of London might be 
heard the voices of men denouncing admirals and captains 
as traitors, and distrust prevailed everywhere. The queen, 
not quite sure of Eussell's fidelity, sent him a letter, which 
he was to read to the fleet, but by this time the admiral's 
feelings towards James had cooled. Passing from ship to 
ship, he exhorted the crews to do their duty. ' If your 
commanders play false,' said he, 'overboard with them, 
and with myself the first.' 

The English and Dutch fleets, numbering in all 99 sail, 
bore down towards La Hogue to destroy the armament pre- 
paring for the intended invasion. The French admiral 
Tourville, ignorant of the union of the allied fleets, and 
trusting to treachery in the English ships, left Brest 
with 44 sail of the line. Off Barfleur the opposing 
squadrons came into sight, and Tourville soon found out 

his mistake. The battle which took place, known 
i^fiQo' ^^ "^^ Hogue, ended in the complete defeat of 

the French. A kind of runninsr fi^ht continued 

AD. . 

for three days, during which Tourville lost 25 
ships. Eighteen of these ran aground near James's camp, 
where they were followed by the English sailors in boats, 
and burnt under the very eyes of the exiled king. This 
victory dispelled all fears of invasion, and effaced the shame 
of the disgraceful defeat ofFBeachy Head. 



* WILLIAM in. AND MARY II. 371 

On land, William and his allies attacked the French at 
Steinkirk, but were beaten back with great loss. (Aug. 3.) 

Louis obtained further revenge in the following year by 
the defeat of William at landen (July 19, 1694), and by 
the dispersion with great loss of the rich Smyrna fleet off 
St. Vincent. As a set-off, the English bombarded the 
coast towns of France, and nearly destroyed Dieppe and 
Plavre. But an attempt to capture Brest failed, with great 
loss to the English, entirely through the treachery of Marl- 
borough. 

In the year 1695, St. Malo, Dunkirk, and Calais were 
bombarded. Louis, in retaliation, sent some troops against 
Brussels, who laid the greater part of the town in ruins. 
In the autumn, William obtained a great success in the 
capture of Namur, but the allies suffered great loss. 

The next year found the belligerents almost exhausted. 
With the exception of the bombardment of a few coast 
towns by the allied fleets, and indecisive skirmishes on 
land, nothing of importance was done. Both sides, heartily 
tired of the war, brought it to an end by the 
Treaty of Ryswick. Louis consented to acknow- i />q7 ' 
ledge William as King of Great Britain and Ire- 

AD 

land, and to cease countenancing any conspiracy 
against him. The peace caused the greatest dismay 
amongst the Jacobites, but the great majority of the people 
hailed it with acclamations of delight. 



Jacobite Plots. 

From the beginning of the Eevolution, there was an influ- 
ential body in the nation, like the Non-jurors, who regarded 
William^s accession as an -usurpation. Many Tories and 
discontented Whigs swelled this faction, which continued to 
keep up an active correspondence with James. William 
was not a popular king. His manners were cold and re- 
served. Although he was the grandson of Charles I., he 
was considered a foreigner, and the favour he showed to 
his Dutch countrymen increased the unpopularity of his 



372 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

foreign extraction. As the excitement of the Revolution 
cooled down, the bad conduct of James became less heinous 
to many who had gladly welcomed the Prince of Orange, 
and conspiracies were set afoot to bring him back to the 
throne. We have already mentioned the names of Marl- 
borough and Admiral Russell, the latter a member of the 
Whig party. To these may be added the names of the 
Princess Anne, the Earl of Shrewsbury, Earl Clarendon, 
and Lord Godolphin, the Prime Minister ; and they are but 
examples of a host of others. Fortunately for the peace 
of England, James's foolish and bigoted conduct, even in 
exile, undid the work of all his friends at home. The 
Protestant Jacobites who presented themselves at the Court 
of St. Germains were treated with every mark of dis- 
respect. They had no chance, compared with a Papist, of 
obtaining James's favour. All who died in the Protestant 
faith were buried, like dogs, in a field in the dead of night. 
These insults damaged the Jacobite cause in England and 
Scotland, and even some of its most ardent supporters 
were disgusted and alarmed. Just before the battle of La 
Hogue, when James's hopes ran high, he issued a Declara- 
tion, which contained so little acknowledgment of error, so 
few promises of better government, that his friends were 
ashamed of it, and called it a forgery. By conduct so 
foolish James did as much harm to his cause as the defeat 
of La Hogue. 

On December 28, 1694, Queen Mary died of the small- 
pox, greatly lamented by the majority of the nation. Her 
death was the signal for renewed Jacobite plots, and she was 
scarcely laid in her grave when a scheme was formed, with 
the approval of James, for the assassination of her husband. 
The design of murdering the king was confined to a few 
select traitors, but at the same time another plan was set 
on foot to raise an insurrection which was to be supported 
by a foreign arrny. Each of these plots was under the 
direction of a leader sent specially from St. Germains. 
The care of the insurrection was intrusted to the Duke of 
Berwick, an illegitimate son of Charles II., and the assas- 
sination to Sir George Barclay, who had fought under 



WILLIAM III. AND MAEY II. 373 

Dundee in Scotland. Barclay got together a band of about 
forty cut-throats, half of whom had come from France 
on purpose ; and it was resolved to attack the king on his 
return from hunting at Richmond, as was his custom every 
Saturday. (February 25, 1696.) At the same time troops 
and transports were being collected at Calais, ready for 
action as soon as William's death was known. 

The plot was disclosed by some of the conspirators, and 
immediately the Parliament and nation were roused to the 
highest pitch of excitement. The words assassination and 
invasion acted like a spell, and the whole country was 
astir. The two Houses of Parliament formed a ' Loyal 
Association,' by which they pledged themselves to protect 
the king's life, and support the order of succession as 
settled by the Bill of Eights. The conspirators were 
hunted like wild beasts ; the chief were soon captured, 
except Barclay, who escaped to France, and eight were 
executed. The search after Jacobite plotters became very 
active. • Sir John Fenwick was arrested as a party to the 
assassination plot. When in prison he oifered to give 
evidence against Marlborough, Godolphin, Eussell, and 
others. But his hesitating and wavering conduct caused 
his statements to be treated as calumnies. He suffered 
death on Tower Hill, by Bill of Attainder, being the last 
in England who perished on the scaffold by that method of 
procedure. (January 28, 1697.) 

These futile conspiracies and the peace of Ryswick had 
a very discouraging effect upon the Jacobites, and for the 
remainder of the reign they gave little trouble to the 
government. 

Partition Treaties with France. Second Act of 
Settlement. William's Death and Character. 

The war with France greatly impoverished the nation, 
and was the beginning of the National Debt, which then 
amounted to 17,000,000Z. The House of Commons, in its 
anxiety to retrench expenses, and from its antipathy to a 
standing army, reduced the -military force of the kingdom 



374 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

to 10,000 men. This vote was very displeasing to the 
king, who knew that peace with France could not long 
continue. In 1698 a new Parliament assembled, which 
contained a great number of Tories, many of whom were 
hostile to William. This Assembly reduced the army to 
7,000 -men, and passed a vote that they should all be 
natives of the British dominions. This measure was par- 
ticularly galling to the king, who was thus obliged to 
dismiss his faithful Dutch guards, and the French refugees 
in his service. 

Parliament was thus disarming England just at a time 
when the government of France was planning a scheme to 
add Spain to its dominions. Charles II. of Spain had no 
issue, and his health was much enfeebled. There were 
three claimants for his possessions—the Dauphin of France, 
the Emperor Leopold, and the Electoral Prince of Bavaria, 
WiUiam, fearing the aggrandisement of France, secretly 
formed a treaty with the French king for the partition of 
the Spanish empire. The First Partition Treaty was 
signed October 11, 1698. According to its provisions, 
Spain, the Netherlands, and the Indies were to be git en 
to the Electoral Prince ; Naples and Sicily to the Dauphin ; 
and Milan to the Archduke Charles, second son of the 
emperor. In the following year the Prince of Bavaria 
died, and consequently a Second Partition Treaty was 
made in the spring of 1700, giving to the Archduke 
Charles the portion assigned to the Electoral Prince, and 
Milan to the Dauphin, in addition to the possessions pro- 
mised in the former treaty. Both these treaties were to 
be kept secret from the King of Spain, but Louis took 
good care to make them known. "Within a month after- 
wards Charles II. died, leaving a will in favour of the 
Dauphin's second son, Philip of Anjou. Louis, in spite 
of the partition treaty, helped his grandson with all his 
power, and hence arose the great war of the Spanish suc- 
cession. England could do nothing to check the aggran- 
disement of France. Her army was reduced to the lowest 
point, and the people were already burdened with the debt 
of the late war. William, however, succeeded in forming 



WILLIAM III. AND MAEY II. 375 

the Grand Alliance of England, Holland, and the Empire, 
to prevent France from obtaining the Spanish Netherlands 
and Milan. (September 7, 1701.) 

An event happened just then in France which caused 
the English people to unite heartily in the policy of their 
king. James was dying at St. Germains. Louis entered 
his bedchamber, and, in defiance of all his engagements, 
said to the dying exile, ' I come to tell your majesty that, 
whenever it shall please God to take you from us, I will 
be to your son what I have been to you ; and I will 
acknowledge him as King of England, Scotland, and Ire- 
land.' This declaration produced the greatest indignation 
in England, and the new Parliament, which met at the 
close of the year, voted large land and sea forces, and 
declared that no peace should be made till France had 
atoned for the insult. 

In the summer previous to this, a Second Act of Settle- 
ment had been drawn up. William was child- ^ ^- ^ 
less: and Anne, the next heir to the throne, 

. A.D. 

had lost all her children. A new settlement of 
the crown was therefore necessary. It provided that the 
succession to the throne should be in Sophia of Hanover, 
daughter of Frederick, Elector Palatine, and Elizabeth, 
sister of Charles I., and her heirs, being Protestants. 
There were, besides, many new securities for the liberties 
of the people incorporated in this Act. 

William's health had for some time been in a declining 
state. His many cares and anxieties wore out his strength 
and made him prematurely old. When riding one day in 
Hampton Court park, his horse trod where a mole had 
been working, stumbled, and threw him. The king broke his 
collar-bone. The shock was too much for a system already 
enfeebled by disease, and about a fortnight afterwards, he 
died at Kensington, in the fifty-second year of his age and 
the thirteenth of his reign. (March 8, 1702.) 

In appearance Wilham was a man of middle height, 
and very thin ; his nose was aquiline ; his eyes bright and 
piercing ; and forehead high. In manner he was cold and 
reserved ; but on the field of battle he was full of animation. 



376 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

As a general and a statesman lie ranks high ; and his 
moral character is marked by temperance, truthfulness, 
and honesty. His most intimate friend was a Dutch 
gentleman, named Bentinck, whom he created Earl of 
Portland. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

In Scotland there was a great desire to form commercial 
relations with the East and West Indies. For this purpose 
the Scotch Parliament passed a bill to further the scheme 
of establishing two colonies on the isthmus of Darien. 
This undertaking was called the Darien Scheme. In 
1698, after great preparations, 1,200 men, besides women 
and children, set out from Leith for the isthmus. Their 
leader misunderstood the geography of the district, and 
the East India Company and Dutch merchants opposed the 
plan with all their might. What with opposition in Eng- 
land, sickness, and attacks from the Spaniards, the under- 
taking became a ruinous failure, and caused a bitter feeling 
in Scotland against this country. 

The Parliaments of this reign passed several important 
Acts. In 1694 a Triennial Bill provided for the election 
of a new Parliament every third year. This act continued 
in force till the reign of George I. In 1696 a Treason 
Act was passed for the better regulation of trials for 
treason. 

The Freedom of the Press was established by the ex- 
piration of the Licensing Act, which forbade unlicensed 
printing. (1695.) 

The Bank of England was founded by a Scotchman 
named Paterson, in 1695 ; in the following year an Eng- 
lishman, named Holland, established the Bank of Scotland ; 
and paper money then came into use. In this reign the 
first real Ministry or Cabinet was formed. 

Bayonets, invented at Bayonne, came into use ; the first 
Eddystone Lighthouse was begun ; a steam-engine for 
raising water was invented by Savary ; and Fort William, 
now Calcutta, was founded. 



WILLIAM III. AND MARY II. 377 

Greenwich Palace was converted into a hospital for 
seamen ; the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge 
was established in 1698 ; and three years later the Society 
for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts was 
formed. 

During this reign Peter the Great, Emperor of Russia, 
worked for three months as a ship-carpenter in the dock- 
yard of. Deptford, under the name of Peter Michaelof. 



378 mSTOEY OP ENGLAND. 



ANNE. 
Born 1665 A.D. Began to Reign 1702 A.D. Died 1714 A.D. 



Accession of the Queen. 

War of the Spanish Succession. 

Treaty of Utrecht. 

Union of England and Scotland. 



The Strife of Political Parties. 
Occasional Conformity Bill. 
Dr. Sacheverell. 
Death of the Queen. 



Miscellaneous Pacts. 



The Queen's Accession. War of the Spanish 
Succession. Treaty of Utrecht. 

Anne, the second daughter of James 11. , was immediately 
proclaimed queen on the death of William. Her educa- 
tion had been intrusted to Compton, Bishop of London, 
who carefully brought her up in the principles of the 
Church of England. In 1683 she married Prince George 
of Denmark, and on her accession she made him general- 
issimo of the forces and lord high admiral ; but on account ■ 
of his weak, indolent character, his influence in England 
was very small. Anne had not lived on very good terms 
with the late king. She was entirely under the influence 
of the Countess of Marlborough, whose husband had been 
for some years in disgrace at court. Her feelings were in 
favour of the Tories, the opponents of William's govern- 
ment, but her advisers persuaded her to maintain the prin- 
ciples of the Grand Alliance, in continuation of the late 
king's policy. Lady Marlborough's influence was supreme 
at court. Between the queen and her favourite the royal 
dignity was laid aside. Anne took the name of Mrs. 
Morley, while her friend was called Mrs. Freeman. 

The War of the Spanish Succession was caused, as we 
saw in the last reign, by the ambition of Louis XIV., who 



ANNE. 379 

successfully intrigued to get the throne of Spain for his 
grandson, Philip of Anjou. The Grand Alliance, con- 
sisting of England, Holland, the Empire, and afterwards 
of Portugal and Savoy, was formed to check the power of 
France. The war, which was declared in 1702, lasted 
eleven years. Its chief theatre was the Netherlands. The 
command of the English and Dutch armies was intrusted 
to Marlborough, who soon proved himself the first captain 
of the day. 

The first two years of the war were spent on land in the 
capture of some important towns in the Netherlands, and 
on sea, Admiral Rooke did some execution upon French'and 
Spanish ships in Vigo harbour. The third year . 
is memorable for the great victory of Blenheim. 1 704 
Vienna being threatened by the French and ^ ^ 
their allies, Marlborough hastened to its relief. 
His forces, united to those under the imperial general, 
Prince Eugene of Savoy, amounted to about 52,000. The 
Bavarians and French, under Marshal Tallard, numbered 
56,000. The battle began at mid-day, lasted till night, 
and ended in a famous victory for Marlborough. The 
slaughter was immense. The enemy lost about 40,000 
men, and the victors 12,000. Tallard and his staiF were 
captured, and the baggage and colours of his army, with 
most of the artillery, became the booty of the allies. This 
victory saved the emperor, and made him master of 
Bavaria. For this success, Marlborough received the 
thanks of Parliament, and the gift of the royal manor of 
Woodstock, which was further adorned by a splendid man- 
sion, built at the public expense, and called Blenheim, after 
the famous battle. 

In the same summer the English navy won laurels in 
the Mediterranean. Admiral Rooke, with some allied 
troops under the Prince of Hesse -Darmstadt, captured 
Gibraltar. (July 23, 1704.) Soon after, the French 
fleet was so severely handled off Malaga that for the rest of 
the war it dare not show itself. 

In the following year, while Marlborough was reducing 
a few places in the Netherlands, the Earl of Peterborough 



380 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

was shedding lustre on the English arms in Spain. With 
a small army, aided by the English navy, he captured Bar- 
celona, and almost succeeded in driving Philip V. out of 
Spain. In the midst of his victorious career, he was re- 
called home, and the command given to the Earl of Gal- 
way, who, with some Portuguese forces, encountered Philip 
at Almanza. The Portuguese took to flight at the first 
shot, and the English were compelled to surrender. 

In 1706, Marlborough defeated the French under Ville- 
roy at Ramilies, and became master of Brabant. In the 
same year Eugene won a victory near Turin. Louis, 
thoroughly dispirited, sought peace, but his offers were 
rejected through English influence. 

The next year passed without any great achievement, 
but in 1708, the great victory of Oudenarde gave Marl- 
borough possession of Lille, and forced the French to 
abandon all their fortified places in Flanders. In the 
Mediterranean, Minorca fell into English hands. The 
King of France, in the hope of making a diversion, sent the 
Pretender with a small fleet to Scotland, but Admiral 
Byng arrived in the Forth in time to prevent a landing. 

Marlborough's last victory was in 1709. As he and 
Eugene were preparing to besiege Mons, the French 
advanced in great force to save it, and at MalplaC[liet they 
fought one of the most obstinate battles of the war ; but 
victory as usual fell to the allies. The capture of Mons 
terminated the campaign.* The remainder of the war was 
spent in sieges. The quarrels of political parties at home 
interfered with the successful prosecution of the struggle, 
and gave the French some slight advantages. The Tories 
wished to put an end to the war, and in 1711 they entered 
into negotiations with France for this purpose. Peace was 
eventually concluded by the Treaty of Utrecht. (1713.) 

France agreed to acknowledge the succession of the 
House of Hanover ; to promise that the crowns of France 
and Spain should not be united ; to demolish the fortifica- 
tions of Dunkirk ; and to cede to England Hudson's Bay, 
Nova Scotia, and the islands of St. Christopher and New- 
foundland. Spain agreed to cede to England Minorca and 



ANNE. 381 

Gibraltar, and the right of supplying Spanish America 
with negroes. Naples, Milan, Sardinia, and the Spanish 
Netherlands were to be ceded to the emperor, and Sicily to 
the Duke of Savoy. 

This war added nearly 22,000,000/. to the national 
debt. 

TJnion of England and Scotland. 

At the time of Anne's succession, the relations between 
England and Scotland were in a most critical state. Ever 
since the union of the two crowns under James I., a feeling 
of jealousy and dissatisfaction had been growing up in the 
minds of the Scotch people with reference to England. 
The absence of the sovereign and his court gave to their 
country an appearance of inferiority which a high-spirited 
nation like the Scotch could ill brook. And the attempts 
of the Stuart kings to establish Episcopacy tended to in- 
crease the spirit of hostility to everything English. But 
the greatest bitterness was produced by the failure of the 
Darien scheme. The Scots had taken up this project of 
colonisation with as much enthusiasm as their fathers had 
signed the Covenant; and when it failed, bringing sorrow 
and ruin into many homes, fierce words were heard in 
every mouth against the influence of England. So revenge- 
ful was the language, and so bitter the feeling from one 
end of Scotland to the other, that it became plain that a 
separation of the two countries was nigh at hand, unless 
something was done to allay the discontent. The Scottish 
Parliament, in 1704, gave signs of the danger that 
threatened the two nations by passing an Act of Security, 
which decreed that the successor to the throne of Scotland 
on the death of Queen Anne should not be the person 
chosen by the English Parliament unless the Scottish 
people were admitted to share with the English the full 
benefits of trade and navigation. And to give effect to this 
Act, it was fiirther resolved to drill all the men in Scotland 
capable of bearing arms. This threat aroused the indig- 
nation of the English Parliament, and the prospect of civil 



382 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

war seemed inevitable. The wisest men in both countries 

saw that the only remedy lay in closer union, and their 

efforts were directed to bring about this desirable object. 

„_„ Commissioners were appointed on both sides to 

draw up a Treaty of Union, which, by promises 

and bribes, received the sanction of the Scottish 

Parliament. Its chief terms were : — 

1. That the two kingdoms should form one, under the 
name of Great Britain. 

2. That the succession to the crown of the United King- 
dom should be in the Electress Sophia and her heirs, being 
Protestants. 

3. That there should be equal rights and privileges of 
trade and navigation. 

4. That Scotland should retain her own laws, customs, 
and Presbyterian form of religious worship. 

5. That Scotland should be represented in the Parlia- 
ment of Great Britain by sixteen elective peers and 
forty-five members of the Commons. 

The ' Union Jack,' bearing the red cross of St. George 
and the diagonal white cross of St. Andrew, was appointed 
by proclamation to be the national flag. The Treaty of 
Union was most unpopular in Scotland among all classes 
of people. During its consideration, Edinburgh was in the 
state of the greatest excitement, and soldiers were necessary 
to protect the members of Parliament from violence.- The 
unpopularity of this measure produced Jacobite rebellions 
in after years, and the favourite inscription on Scottish 
sword-blades for a long time was ' Prosperity to Scotland 
and no Union ! ' A half-century went by before Scotland 
began to reap the benefits of the Act of Union. With the 
decay of Jacobitism, there arose a spirit of industry and 
commerce which soon banished the discords of former years, 
and sowed the seeds of the closest friendship with their 
English neighbours. Then trade and manufactures made 
rapid progress amongst the Scots, and insignificant towns 
became opulent cities, and fishing villages thriving sea- 
ports. 



ANNE. 383 



The Strife of Political Parties. Occasional Conformity 
Bill. Dr. Sacheverell. Death of the Queen. 

The strife between the two great political parties in the 
kingdom was mogt bitter throughout this reign. The 
queen's sympathies were with the Tories, and all her 
ministers were at first taken from that party. The Whigs 
had become very unpopular in the country by reason of the 
great increase of taxation, for which they were solely blamed, 
Anne's first Parliament, therefore, consisted chiefly of 
Tories, who, though willing to continue the foreign policy 
of the late king, treated his memory with marked dis- 
respect. At first the strife of the two political factions re- 
lated to Church questions. The Whigs were favourably 
inclined to religious toleration, and were called Low Chiurch- 
men, while their opponents, anxious to maintain the penal 
laws of Charles II., and distinguished by their attachment 
to old religious customs, were named High Churchmen. 
The Tories showed their power and spirit by passing in the 
House of Commons an Occasional Conformity Bill, which 
was levelled against Dissenters who swore to the Test Act 
in order to qualify themselves for public appointments. 
This Act declared that all persons holding government 
offices who should attend Dissenting places of worship, 
after taking the Sacrament and test imposed by law, should 
forfeit their posts, and be punished by fines, &c. It also 
proposed to apply the Test Act to freemen having a right 
to vote for members of Parliament, and to persons holding 
inferior offices under the crown. This violent and perse- 
cuting bill was happily thrown out by the Lords. 

Just about this time the Duke of Marlborough was 
highly offended by the refusal of the Commons to grant 
him a pension of 5,000Z., which the queen wished to bestow 
upon him. His wife's influence at court was supreme, and 
for the remainder of the reign he did his utmost to favour 
the interest of the Whigs. Several of that party became 
members of the Cabinet, among whom was Eobert Walpole, 



384 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

afterwards so famous ; and eventually a "Whig was chosen 
Speaker of the House of Commons. 

The queen was most averse to Whig ascendency, and 
only submitted to it in obedience to the will of the Duchess 
of Marlborough. But at last she began to tire of the yoke 
of this haughty and imperious lady, and longed for the 
opportunity of throwing it off. Their quarrels were fanned 
by one of the queen's attendants, named Abigail Hill, who 
had ingratiated herself into the royal favour. This young 
lady, afterwards known as Mrs. Masham, leaned to the 
Tory side and intrigued with Harley, the leader of that 
party, to overthrow the Whig influence at court. A false 
step on the part of the Ministry gave success to the in- 
trigues of Miss Hill, and afforded the queen the opportu- 
nity of shaking off the yoke of the Duchess of Marlborough. 

Dr. Sacheverell, Rector of St. Saviour's, Southwark, in 
a sermon preached at St. Paul's Cathedral before the Lord 
Mayor and aldermen of London, maintained the duty of 
passive obedience to the fullest extent, denounced the 
Revolution in no measured terms, opposed all toleration of 
Dissent, and railed at the Whig Ministry, especially at 
Godolphin, the Lord High Treasurer. With foaming lips 
and frantic gestures, he shouted that the Church of England 
was in danger, and called upon all true patriots to rally to 
its defence. (November 5, 1709.) The publication of the 
sermon so angered the Ministry that it was re- 

vi-icx solved to impeach the preacher before the House 
of Lords. The Tory party did its utmost to stir 
up the populace in Sacheverell's favour, and suc- 
ceeded so well that during the three weeks of the trial 
multitudes daily escorted Sacheverell's coach to West- 
minster Hall. The queen herself attended almost every 
day, and her sedan-chair was surrounded by crowds, 
shouting, ' God bless the Queen and Dr. Sacheverell ! we 
hope your Majesty is for High Church and Sacheverell.' 
The mob showed its zeal for the Church by destroying 
many Dissenting chapels, and by numerous acts of violence. 
Sacheverell was found guilty, but by a very small ma- 
jority. He was forbidden to preach for three years, and 



ANNE. 385 

his sermons were burnt in front of the Eoyal Exchange. 
But the punishment was so slight that it was considered a 
triumph by his friends, who testified their joy by bonfires 
and illuminations. 

The result of this trial was the downfall of the Whig 
government. Anne, encouraged by the popular feeling, 
dismissed her ministers, and formed a Tory Administra- 
tion, of which Harley (afterwards Earl of Oxford) and Mr. 
St. John (Lord Bolingbroke) were leading members. 
Marlborough, on account of the war still raging, was 
allowed to keep his post. A new Tory Parliament sup- 
ported these changes, and passed an Occasional Conformity 
Bill, and a Schism Act requiring all schoolmasters to con- 
form to the Established Church. Both were repealed in 
the following reign. 

The new ministry sought to bring the war with France to 
an end, and entered into secret negotiations for this purpose, 
which, after two years, terminated in the treaty of Utrecht. 
Meanwhile, Marlborough, having returned to England, 
was accused of receiving bribes from a Jew who supplied 
the army with bread, and was dismissed fi-om his office. 

The remainder of the reign was occupied with Jacobite 
intrigues to bring in the Pretender. Harley and Boling- 
broke were both in correspondence with the exiled Stuarts, 
but the Whigs and other supporters of the Act of Settle- 
ment were alive to the dangers that threatened the succes- 
sion, and took prompt measures to defeat the schemes of 
those ministers. Bolingbroke quarrelled with his colleague 
Harley, and succeeded in obtaining his dismissal from 
office ; but three days afterwards the queen was struck with 
a mortal illness, and the Whigs were restored to power be- 
fore Bolingbroke's plan of recalling the Pretender was ripe 
for execution. Effective measures were at once taken to 
ensure the succession of the House of Hanover and to pre- 
serve the nation from civil war. 

On August 1, 1714, Queen Anne died, the last lineal 
descendant of the Stuart race who sat on the throne of 
England. She was a woman of an amiable character, but 
weak, and somewhat indolent. Her disposition was affec- 



386 HISTORY OF ENGLAKD. 

tionate, and her virtues obtained for her the title of ' Good 
Queen Anne.' Her appearance, though engaging, lacked 
dignity. Her husband, Prince George of Denmark, had 
died six years previously^ and of her nineteen children, all 
died in infancy, except one boy George, who reached the 
age of eleven years. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

In 1703, a great storm swept away Eddystone Lighthouse, 
and destroyed 12 ships of war and a great number of mer- 
chantmen. In London much valuable property was 
damaged, and 1,500 persons are said to have perished. 
The queen, in 1704, caused a bill to be passed to enable 
her to set 2i-^Bxt first-fruits and tenths for the benefit of poor 
Church livings; this fund is known as dueen Anne's 
Bounty. St. Paul's Cathedral, after 37 years' labour, at a 
cost of about 1,000,000/., was completed by Wren in 1708. 
More than fifty churches in London were built by this 
great architect. The first daily newspaper — *The Daily 
Courant ' — was published. A General Post Office for all 
the British dominions was established. Newcomen, a 
locksmith of Devonshire, invented his steam-engine. This 
reign was the first for centuries which was undisturbed by 
rebellion. 



BOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUART PERIOD. 



Population. Food. Dress. Dwellings. Amuse- 
ments. National Industry. Condition of the 
Country. Learning and Literature. 

The Stuart period of Englfeh history is distinguished for 
the conflict of the principles of liberty and despotism. The 
spirit of activity, enterprise, and independence, which had 
given new life to the nation under the Tudors, became too 
vigorous to be controlled by their successors. The former 
princes, though strong enough to make the power of the 
crown almost supreme, were yet sufficiently discreet to avoid 
provoking needless opposition ; but the Stuarts, misunder- 
standing the temper of the people, aimed at arbitrary rule. 
They, however, lacked the power of enforcing their prin- 
ciples, and were so indiscreet as to put their weakness to 
the test. The struggle ended in the triumph of the 
popular cause, and the destruction of the Stuart dynasty. 
To this period, so fraught with many vicissitudes, we owe 
some of our most beneficial laws. It has been charac- 
terised as the age of bad government and good laws ; and 
when we call to mind the Petition of Right, the Habeas 
Corpus Act, the Bill of Rights, and the Act of Settlement, 
we cannot but acknowledge the truth of the description. 

And to this same'^era we owe the perfection of parlia- 
mentary government in the formation of a ' Ministry.' 
Before the Revolution, the sovereign usually conducted the 
government through the Privy Council, which was com- 
posed of the chief officers of State and others whom the 
king thought fit to summon to it. The members of this 
council were entirely independent of each other ; there 
was no united action between them ; and their official 
connection with the sovereign did not depend on the will 



388 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

of the Parliament. Under William III. this system 
underwent a change. A body of advisers was chosen by 
the sovereign from the leading members of both Houses 
of Parliament, who were thought to represent the opinions 
of the Commons. This select body is known as the 
* Ministry,' or the * Cabinet.' The ministry, therefore, is, in 
fact, a committee of the leading members of the two 
Houses of Parliament, and thus the government of the 
nation really rests in the hands of the people. 

Population. — The population of England at the close 
of the seventeenth century was about five millions and a 
half. The country gentleman formed a most important 
class, but they were very different in all respects from 
their descendants of the present day. In education and 
manners they were no better than small farmers of our 
own time. They lived on their estates, and seldom left 
their native county. On market days they might be seen 
in the neighbouring town busy selling the produce of their 
lands. They * examined samples of grain, handled pigs, 
and made bargains over a tankard with drovers and hop- 
merchants.' Their language diifered very little from that 
of a farm-labourer, and one could easily tell by their 
accent from what part of the country they came. But 
underneath all this simplicity and roughness, there lay the 
qualities of an English gentleman. Though uncouth in 
speech and manners, the country squire was proud of his 
descent and jealous of the honour of his house. His prin- 
ciples were marked by respect for hereditary monarchy, 
and love for the Church as established by law. The 
opponents of either of these received little consideration 
at his hands. His wife and daughters were as simple in 
their tastes as himself They were not above the duties of 
household management. They could spin and sew, cook 
and brew, make wine and pastry, and still be to the 
villagers the ladies of the hall. 

The clergy formed another important class of society. 
At this period the rural clergyman held a low place in 
the social scale. The Eeformation had deprived the 
Church of many of her worldly honours and much of her 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUART PERIOD. 389 

wealth, and consequently there were fewer inducements 
for men of good birth to take holy orders. The progress 
of education, too, enabled laymen to fill those high offices 
of State which in previous times had been held by clergy- 
men. The sacred profession, therefore, oiFered few prizes 
to the upper classes, and gradually deteriorated in their 
estimation. The custom of retaining the services of a 
chaplain, or Levite, as he was called, in the houses of the 
rich, further depreciated the sacred calling. A chaplain 
was sometimes considered no better than an upper servant, 
and oftentimes was expected to fill up his spare time in 
the garden or on the farm. When he married, his wife 
was usually selected from the kitchen of his patron, and 
he was considered to have done well if a waiting-woman 
accepted him for a husband. Church livings were gene- 
rally so small in value that a clergyman's sons were 
brought up to the plough, and his daughters trained up for 
domestic service. But the city clergy were men of a dif- 
ferent stamp. The town parson upheld the honour of his 
calling, by his learning, eloquence, and independence. In 
the metropolitan pulpits especially were found men of the 
greatest refinement, skilled in all the learning of the day, 
and able to maintain a foremost place in the best society. 
The country clergy, humble as they were, possessed an 
influence quite as great in its way as their more favoured 
brethren of the capital. They were the oracles of the 
parish ; and when books were scarce, and newspapers 
almost unknown, the opinions of the parson had great 
weight in all the country round. 

The yeomanry of the time formed a most important 
part of the nation. The number of small proprietors of 
freehold estates was much greater under the Stuarts than 
at present. It is estimated that one-seventh of the whole 
population cijltivated lands of their own, of which the 
average yearly value was between sixty and seventy pounds. 
Men of this class were characterised by a spirit of inde- 
pendence and a leaning towards Puritanism. The strength 
of the Roundhead armies in the great rebellion consisted 
in its sturdy, independent yeomen. Since then very many 
18 



390 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 

of the small freeholds have been bought up by large 
landed proprietors, and the number of men who now farm 
the lands of others is much more numerous than formerly. 
The yeomanry of the present day are, in consequence, 
much less independent in political matters than the same 
class of men in the seventeenth century. 

Of the common people, four-fifths were employed in 
agriculture, at wages averaging from four to six shillings 
per week. A mechanic, as late as the reign of Charles II., 
worked for a shilling a day, but oftentimes he was com- 
pelled to take less. Though wages were much lower than 
in our day, there were many privileges which labourers 
possessed in those times. Thousands of acres now enclosed 
and cultivated were common lands, which the peasant 
might use in many ways to add to his physical comfort. 

Pood. — The great majority of the nation lived chiefly 
on bread made of rye, barley, or oats. Wheaten bread 
such as is now supplied to the inmates of our workhouses 
was seldom seen on the tables even of the yeoman and 
shopkeeper. Fresh meat, then as now, was sold at prices 
above the pockets of the common people. The ordinary 
drink was beer ; but, in the latter half of the seventeenth 
century, tea, coiFee, and chocolate came into use. The 
price of these beverages, however, was so high that the 
wealthy only could indulge in them. As late as 1710, 
bohea cost from twelve to twenty-four shillings per pound. 
Tea and coffee were at first sold in the liquid state, and an 
excise duty of eightpence and fourpence per gallon re- 
spectively was paid upon them. 

The country gentleman kept to his beer, and rarely 
indulged in foreign wine. It was only in the houses of 
the nobility and on great occasions that foreign drinks 
were placed on the board. The time of taking meals had 
undergone little change. The tables of ^ the Avealthier 
classes were plentifully provided, but the vices of intem- 
perance and gluttony were very common. Fresh meat 
was only eaten in the summer months. On the approach 
of cold weather, when grass became scanty, cattle were 
killed and salted in great numbers, and game and river 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUART PERIOD. 391 

fish furnished the chief supply of fresh animal food till 
summer came round again. Under James I. a law was 
passed inflicting a fine of five shillings upon a drunkard, 
who, if unable to pay, was put in the stocks. In the same 
reign potatoes sold for two shillings the pound, and cauli- 
flowers for eighteen-pence each. 

The table-service was of the simplest kind. The upper 
classes used plate ; the middle, pewter ; and the lower, 
wooden trenchers. The highly-finished ware now in 
general use was then unknown. Forks were an important 
addition to the table furniture of this period. 

The habit of smoking was extensively indulged in by 
all classes, and the use of highly-perfumed snufi" was a 
great fashion after the Restoration, especially amongst the 
fops of the time. 

Bress. — Under James I. the previous style of dress 
underwent little change, but in the time of Charles I. a 
most costly and picturesque costume came into use, which 
is known as the Vandyke dress, called after the famous 
portrait-painter of the time. It consisted of a tunic of 
silk or satin, with slashed sleeves ; a rich lace collar 
adorned the neck ; and a short cloak hung gracefully over 
one shoulder. Short full drawers or trousers, fringed with 
lace, almost reached the top of the wide boots, which came 
half-way up the calf of the leg. A broad-brimmed beaver, 
adorned with a rich band and a plume of feathers, covered 
the head. The hair hung in curls over the shoulders, and 
the beard was trimined to a point. The gay Cavalier wore 
love-locks tied up with pretty coloured ribbon. 

The Puritans affected simplicity of dress, though there 
were many who could vie with the Cavalier in richness of 
costume and ornament. As a body, they were distin- 
guished by short hair, high-crowned hat, plain collar, and 
sober- coloured clothes. 

Under Charles II. the Vandyke dress underwent 
many changes, and French fashions came into use. One 
of the most remarkable of these was the peruke or wig. 
Louis XIV., when young, had beautiful hair, which be 
usually wore in flowing curls. His courtiers tried, out of 



392 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

compliment, to wear tlieir hair in the same style, and those 
who were short of the article bought wigs. The use of the 
peruke soon became common amongst the gentlemen of 
France and England. Fringed gloves ; embroidered coats, 
longer and looser than before ; breeches, ornamented with 
ribbons, and allowing the shirt to fall over the waistband ; 
and a cravat, instead of a collar, distinguished the courtiers 
of Charles II. Towards the close of the period, the 
breeches became tighter, wigs and waistcoats longer, and 
buckles, instead of rosettes, on the shoes came into use. 

With regard to the dress of ladies, the fardingale and stiff 
ruffs of the previous period gave way, under Charles I., to 
flowing skirts and falling collars, edged with lace. The 
costumes of the court of Charles II. was something of the 
same style, but the dress was worn indecently low. An 
improvement in the latter respect was made after the 
Revolution. Then, too, began the fashion of looping up the 
skirts to show the rich under- clothing, and the custom of 
wearing the hair combed up like a tower. Both these 
fashions disappeared at the close of the period, when curls 
and the old fardingale, under the name of a hoop-petti- 
coat, came again into use. 

The dress of the working classes underwent little change, 
as the style and material of the clothing of their betters 
were too costly for imitation. The smock-frock was the 
countryman's usual outer garment. 

Bwellings. — In the reign of James I., the ancient style 
of domestic architecture entirely disappeared. The country 
houses of the rich underwent a general improvement, but, 
on the whole, there was little attempt at display. In towns 
there was a change for the better in the style of build- 
ing. James I. forbade by proclamation the erection of 
mud-plastered and wooden" cottages within the walls of 
London, but the royal order was only partially observed. 
The fire of London was more effectual than proclamations, 
and after that event, houses of brick and stone took the 
place of the old-fashioned timber dwellings. The im- 
provement thus made in the buildings of the capital soon 
spread to the provincial towns. 



SOCIAL CONDITION OE THE STUART PERIOD. 393 

The furniture of the dwellings of the upper classes 
acquired great splendour in this period. It was richly 
carved and ornamented, with a taste equal to that of the 
present day. Paper and leather hangings were invented 
in the early part of the seventeenth century, and the walls 
of the houses of the nobility were adorned with the paint- 
ings of Rubens, Vandyke, Tenier, and Rembrandt. After 
the Restoration, the interior decorations and furniture of 
houses increased in costliness. French fashions furnished 
models for the wealthier classes of England, and the 
beautifully carved and gilded furniture of France, and the 
famous Gobelin tapestry of that country, soon found their 
way into the houses of the English nobility. Mahogany 
became the favourite material for articles of furniture. 
Floors were still covered with rushes, or matting of 
various colours. Turkey carpets were advertised for sale 
as early as 1660, but they were chiefly used as table-cloths. 
Oilcloth began to be used about the same time. 

The homes of the working classes were still scantily 
supplied with articles. A rough table, a bench, a few 
stools, a straw bed, and some rude cooking utensils, consti- 
tuted the furniture of a labouring . man. 

Amusements. — Side by side with the general improve- 
ments of the country in arts, commerce, and manufactures, 
healthy out-door sports began to decline. James I. en- 
deavoured to keep alive the old English games by publish- 
ing the * Book of Sports.' From this work we learn that 
the common amusements of the peasantry were dancing, 
leaping, vaulting, archery, May games, Whitsun ales, and 
morris dances. These pastimes were strongly recommended 
to all persons on Sundays after divine service. The games 
forbidden on that day were bear and bull-baiting, inter- 
ludes, and bowling. The amusements of townspeople were 
more confined. They were cock-fighting, bowling, cards, 
dice, billiards, musical entertainments, dancing, masques, 
balls, and plays. The lower orders of citizens delighted 
themselves in foot-ball, wrestling, cudgel-playing, nine- 
pins, cricket, quoits, bear-baiting, and lying at ale- 
houses. 



394 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

James I. was very fond of hawking, and during his reign 
that old sport maintained its ground. Billiards began to 
take the place of some of the former boisterous games, and 
tennis especially was a favourite pastime amongst courtiers. 
Horse-racing, too, increased in splendour and importance. 
Gaming-houses were licensed in London, and gambling was 
encouraged at the court of James. 

When the Puritans obtained the supremacy, all sports 
were put down with a strong hand. The pastimes of the 
village-green were suppressed, and the May-poles were 
ordered to be cut down. Theatrical amusements, horse- 
racing, rope-dancing, bowls, bull-baiting, were considered 
abominations no longer to be tolerated. On the fall of 
the Commonwealth, the rigour and austerity of the Puritan 
rule caused a reaction which not only revived many of 
the old games, but also produced a spirit of frivolity and 
licentiousness. 

After the Restoration, the theatres were crowded more 
than ever, and women appeared on the stage in characters 
formerly taken by boys. The vice of gambling prevailed 
to a ruinous extent. Boat-racing, yacht- racing, and horse- 
racing at Newmarket, were much practised. 

National Industry. — The woollen manufacture con- 
tinued to be the chief branch of home industry. It was 
usual to send cloth to be dyed in Holland, but James I., 
with the intention of favouring English interests, prohibited 
the exportation of un dyed cloth, and encouraged that branch 
of the trade in England. The Dutch, in revenge, shut 
their ports against English-dyed cloths, and the woollen 
trade for a time suffered much from the dispute. 

In the reign of Charles II., a law was passed for the 
encouragement of the great staple of the country, by which 
it was ordered that every dead person should be buried in 
a grave-dress made entirely of woollen material. *By the 
settlement of some Dutchmen in England, a great improve- 
ment took place in the dyeing of English cloths. 

The silk manufacture attracted great attention during 
this period. London was the centre of the trade. A com- 
pany of silk-throwsters was incorporated in 1629, and in 
1661 it employed forty thousand men, women, and 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUART PERIOD. 395 

children. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes drove to 
England many refugees, who greatly improved this branch 
of industry. A numerous body of these emigrants settled 
in Spitalfields, now a part of London, where their descen- 
dants are still to be found. 

The linen manufacture was chiefly a domestic employ- 
ment. In the latter half of the seventeenth century, every 
encouragement was offered for the improvement of this 
industry. During the same period, the manufacture of 
linens, introduced by the Scotch into the north of Ireland, 
was gradually rising into importance. 

The cotton trade was then in its infancy. In 1638, the 
people of Manchester are mentioned as buying cotton wool 
imported from' Cyprus and Smyrna. Calico printing first 
commenced in London in 1 676. 

The mineral wealth of the country was almost neglected, 
but towards the close of the period it received greater 
attention. The tin-mines of Cornwall continued to be 
worked as they had been for centuries, but the rich veins 
of copper in the same locality remained untouched. The 
salt-beds of Cheshire were discovered soon after the Resto- 
ration, yet they were not worked in that age. The salt 
obtained from brine pits was so impure that physicians 
attributed many diseases to its use. The iron manufacture 
was in a languishing state, in consequence of the use of wood 
in smelting the ore. The consumption of so much wood 
caused Parliament to prohibit the employment of timber 
for smelting purposes. In the time of Charles 11. , most of 
the iron was imported, but the use of coal for smelting had 
already begun. In the same reign, the prejudice against the 
consumption of coal for domestic purposes had so far been 
overcome that more than 200 vessels were continually 
employed in carrying the mineral from Newcastle to 
London. 

The commercial spirit excited in the previous period 
gathered strength under the Stuarts, in spite of the troubles 
of the State. The several trading companies of the time 
made favourable progress. The East India Company, 
though hampered by the rivalries of the Portuguese and 
Dutch, secured a firm footing in Surat and Madras before 



396 HISTORY OF ENGLAKD. 

the first half of the century had passed away. The Levant 
or Turkey Company, established in 1605, opened up the 
Mediterranean trade. The Merchant Adventurers obtained 
new charters from James I., and carried on a most lucra- 
tive business in woollen goods with the Netherlands and 
Germany. The north of Europe, too, was brought into 
commercial relations with England by the establishment of 
the Russian Company, which monopolised the fisheries of 
the northern seas. Later in the period, a lucrative trade 
began with the colonies of North America, or Plantations, as 
they were called ; and the Hudson's Bay Company com- 
menced its operations in furs, &c. The establishment of 
colonies is an evidence of the enterprising spirit of the 
age, and under the Stuarts colonisation made good pro- 
gress. Two companies for this purpose were chartered by 
James L, and one of these built James Town, in Virginia. 
In the same reign, the Pilgrim Fathers founded the New 
England States. The colonising movement made steady pro- 
gress in the following years, and in the time of Charles II. 
a distinguished quaker, named William Penn, founded the 
State of Pennsylvania. 

Condition of the Country. — Agriculture employed the 
great majority of the population, and the produce of the 
soil far exceeded in value all other branches of industry, 
though only half the area of the kingdom was under cul- 
tivation. Many parts which are now flourishing corn- 
fields, or fruitful orchards, were then barren wastes, forest, 
or marsh. Deer wandered in troops through the woods ; 
wild bulls and wild boars roamed in the forests ; eagles 
frequented the coasts; huge bustards strayed over the 
downs ; and immense flocks of cranes covered the marshes 
of the eastern counties. The domestic animals, as the 
sheep and the ox, were of small size. Native horses were 
only valued at about fifty shillings each. The best breeds 
were imported. Spanish jennets were prized as saddle- 
horses, and grey Flemish mares for the carriages of the 
aristocracy. 

Four-fifths of the population were scattered in rural vil- 
lages and small country towns. No place in the kingdom, 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUART PERIOD. 397 

excepting London, contained 30,000 souls. Bristol, then 
the first English seaport, and Norwich, the first manu- 
facturing town, scarcely numbered so many as this. The 
county towns were the centres of the greatest popula- 
tion ; but York, the capital of the North, and Exeter of the 
West, only contained about 10,000 people. The great seats 
of modern manufactures were only insignificant places. 
Manchester, the centre of the cotton manufacture, was 
a mean-looking market- town, containing a population of 
about 6,000. Leeds, the chief seat of the woollen trade, 
had about 7,000 persons. Sheffield, which now sends its 
cutlery to all parts of the world, possessed a population of 
about 4,000. Birmingham, just then rising into notice for 
its hardware, contained about the same number. Liver- 
pool, now the first seaport in the world, could only boast of 
1,400 tons of shipping and about 200 sailors. Its popula- 
tion of 4,000 has now increased to more than half a million. 
Bath, Buxton, and Timbridge Wells, were the fashionable 
watering-places of the time ; but the accommodation was 
very poor, and the food-supply bad. The modern places 
of attraction for pleasure-seekers, as Brighton, Harrogate, 
Cheltenham, and Scarborough, were almost unknown. 

London, which now contains more than 3,000,000 people, 
had, when Charles II. died, a population of about 500 000. 
The City was the most important part of the capital. Before 
the great fire, it was crowded with houses of wood and 
plaster, built with the upper stories overhanging the shops 
below. After that calamity, houses of brick and stone 
were raised, but the streets were almost as narrow as before. 
The merchants and tradesmen made the City their home 
and many of their dwellings were as magnificent as the 
abodes of the nobility. The houses were not numbered. 
Shops were distinguished by painted sign-boards, as the 
Saracen's Head, the Boyal Oak, &c. ; and when messengers 
were sent on errands, some well-known house was men- 
tioned as a guide. Only one bridge spanned the Thames, 
and that was lined on both sides with old wooden houses. 
The streets of the capital were ill-paved and badly drained. 
In wet weather the gutters were swollen with rain, and the 



398 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Qarrow ways covered with mud. Foot-passengers struggled 
to keep to the wall, to escape the dirt thrown right and left 
by passing vehicles. When night came on, few ventured 
to encounter the danger of the streets, which were not even 
lighted till the last year of Charles II., and then only during 
the winter. From the overhanging windows, pails were 
emptied without any regard for those below, and thieves 
were on the alert to waylay benighted citizens. Swagger- 
ing, dissolute young gentlemen made it their pleasure, 
under cover of the darkness, to parade the streets, insult- 
ing all who came in their way, and by no means scrupu- 
lous in using the rapier which dangled at their side. The 
watchmen of the time were powerless to keep the peace, 
and, anxious for their own safety and comfort, they pre- 
ferred tippling at the ale-house to encountering footpads or 
roystering youngsters. 

The coffee-houses of London were quite an institution of 
the period. At a time when the modern newspaper was 
unknown, men lounged in these places to hear news and 
discuss the scandal of the day. The first of these establish- 
ments was set up during the Commonwealth, by a Turkey 
merchant. They soon became very general, and were fre- 
quented by men of all classes. Every profession and every 
religious and political opinion had its own particular places 
of resort. Each coffee-house had its presiding orator, to 
Avhom admiring crowds lent a willing ear. In the time of 
Charles II. the poet Dryden was the ruling spirit in the 
most fashionable of these establishments, and thither men 
of all ranks crowded, winter and summer, to hear him talk. 
The means of communication between one place and 
another were very deficient. The roads were in a most 
wretched state, and canals were scarcely yet thought of. 
In wet weather it was almost impossible to get along the 
highways in any kind of carriage. The mud lay deep to 
the right and left, and oftentimes a coach stuck so fast in 
the mire that a farmer's team was needed to pull it out. 
The erection of toll-gates, in 1663, was the first step towards 
improving the means of transit. On the best highways, 
goods were usually carried in stage waggons, and travellers 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUAET PERIOD. 399 

who were too poor to go by coach crowded into these con- 
veyances. On less frequented roads, pack-horses were 
used to convey goods. The rich travelled in their own 
coaches, but six horses at least were required to overcome 
the badness of the roads. For the convenience of the 
public, towards the close of the reign of Charles II., coaches 
began to run thrice a week from London to the chief pro- 
vincial towns, but no conveyance went further north than 
York, or further west than Exeter. A ' Flying- Coach ' 
took a day to complete the journey from London to Oxford, 
and this was considered a wonderful feat. The ordinary 
speed of such diligences was in summer fifty miles per day, 
and in winter thirty. The charge was at the rate of 2^d. 
per mile. 

One set-ofF to the inconvenience of travelling was the 
great comfort of the roadside inns. Every village had its 
hostelry, where the traveller might find rest and refresh- 
ment, and England from early times has been famous for 
its inns. 

Bad roads and conveyances were not the only drawbacks 
to travelling in this period. Mounted highwaymen infested 
all the most frequented ways, and it was not safe even for 
a public coach in broad day to pass certain places unless 
the passengers were well armed. The neighbourhood of 
London was the favourite haunt of these thieves, and 
Hounslow Heath and Finchley Common were long cele- 
brated for the exploits of highwaymen. The landlords of 
some inns were no doubt in league with the robbers, and 
thus enabled them to infest many roads with impunity. 

Learning and Literature. — The troubles of the seven- 
teenth century were unfavourable to the progress of educa- 
tion. The literary spirit which distinguished the latter 
half of Elizabeth's reign continued to exert its influence 
till political strife and the stern realities of civil war 
engrossed men's attention. The period of the Eestoration 
was not favourable to the revival of learning. The upper 
classes, whose education had been neglected in the discords 
of previous years, no longer able to appreciate the beautiful 
literary models which had delighted their fathers, were 



400 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

content to imitate the court in its patronage of the frivolous 
and immoral literature of the time. Female education 
especially was at a very low standard. A young lady with 
a mere smattering of learning was considered a prodigy, 
but a lady of rank could scarcely be found who could 
write a letter equal in style of composition and spelling to 
that of a fairly taught national-school girl of our day. 
The licentiousness of the age following the Commonwealth 
degraded woman's mind, and ignorance and frivolity were 
almost regarded as desirable accomplishments. 

The appliances of education in this period were very 
meagre. There was nothing equal to our modern news- 
paper. During the civil war numerous little papers were 
published weekly, and sometimes bi-weekly, but the 
Licensing Act, passed soon after the Eestoration, forbade 
the publishing of political news. Some years later, the 
* London Gazette,' under the sanction of the crown, came 
out twice a week. The paper contained little of import- 
ance, and made up about two pages of moderate size. 

People who lived at a distance from the capital were 
kept informed of what was going on by means of news- 
letters, which were sent once a week. As there were no 
provincial newspapers, the country families depended for 
information upon paid London correspondents. Except in 
the capital, and in Oxford and Cambridge, there was. 
scarcely a printer in the kingdom. York was the only 
place north of the Trent which could boast of a press. 

Books were very scarce in the country, in consequence 
of the difficulty and expense of sending packets from one 
place to another. A few volumes of theology on a clergy- 
man's shelf, or a few books on a squire's table, were con- 
sidered quite a library. In London, students and others 
made up for the deficiencies of their book-shelves by 
crowding booksellers' shops, and poring over their stores 
for a day"together. 

Science made little progress during the first half of this 
period. Napier, however, invented his system of loga- 
rithms, and Dr. Harvey discovered the circulation of the 
blood. But the establishment of the Eoyal Society, in 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUART PERIOD. 401 

1660, gave sucli an impulse to scientific pursuits that it 
became quite necessary to the character of a fine gentleman 
to talk about the wonders of nature, and telescopes and 
magnets. Chemistry became a fashionable study under 
Charles II. The king himself had a laboratory fitted up 
in Whitehall, where he spent many an hour in chemical 
experiments. Amongst the numerous students of science, 
the name of Isaac Newton stands out as the most illustrious. 
To this distinguished philosopher we owe those discoveries 
which made England at that time foremost in the study of 
natural science. 

In art, the English people were far behind their neigh- 
bours. Charles I. was a great patron of the fine arts, and 
his galleries were adorned with several beautiful pictures 
by Titian, EafFaelle, and others. Under his patronage, 
Eubens and Vandyke resided in England. Many of the 
beautiful paintings which he had collected were ordered to 
be sold by the Parliamentary leaders, but Cromwell bought 
the cartoons of Raffaelle, and thus preserved them to the 
nation. In architecture, Inigo Jones and Christopher 
Wren are the only two Englishmen whose names are dis- 
tinguished in connection with art during this period. All 
the painters and sculptors of note found in England were 
foreigners. Lely and Godfrey KneUer came from West- 
phalia ; Cibber, the sculptor, was a Dane ; and Gibbons, 
the carver, a Dutchman. 

English literature continued to flourish in all its splen- 
dour during the first quarter of the seventeenth century. 
The drama was perfected by the immortal genius of 
Shakspeare, and by his contemporaries Beaumont and Flet- 
cher. Bacon made known to the world his new system 
of philosophy, by which the truth of nature and history 
might be thoroughly investigated. The period of civil 
war was not favourable to literary progress, but still there 
were many writers of undying fame even in those days of 
strife. In verse Milton produced unrivalled epics ; Jeremy 
Taylor and Baxter shone in prose ; and Bunyan, the 
* Dreamer of Bedford,' gave to the world his celebrated 
fictions. 



402 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

The period following the Eestoration produced many 
dramatic writers, of whom Drjden is the most eminent. 
The theatre was the only field in which a man of wit and 
genius could employ his literary talents, and therefore 
every man who had to earn his bread by the pen wrote 
plays. But the literature of the time was very impure. 
Puritan hatred to the drama produced a mischievous re- 
action, and it became fashionable to laud to the skies what- 
ever the Eoundheads had condemned. Hence the favourite 
plays were those in which virtue was ridiculed, scruples 
derided, religion mocked, and, in fine, all vicious indul- 
gences applauded. 

The close of the period is distinguished for its numerous 
brilliant writers, both in prose and verse. The reign of 
Anne has been called the Augustan age of English litera- 
ture. Literary tastes prevailed amongst the upper classes, 
and ensured for every author of any note encouraging 
patronage. 



LEADING AUTHORS OF THE STUART PERIOD. 

I. POETS. 

FRANCIS BEAUMONT (1586-1615),) joint authors of numerous 
JOHN FLETCHER . (1576-1625) J plays. 

BEN JONSON (1574-1637): in early life a soldier ; then an actor ; 
poet -laureate under James I. ; author of fifteen plays extant, 
chiefly comedies, and numerous masques ; earliest comedy, ' Every 
Man in His Humour.' Buried in Westminster Abbey. 

PHILIP MASSINGER (1584-1640) : author of numerous dramatic 
pieces, of which seventeen are preserved : chief play, * A New 
Way to Pay Old Debts.' 

JOHN MILTON (1608-1674), the greatest epic poet of modern 
times: author of ' Paradise Lost' and ' Paradise Regained,' which 
were written in poverty and blindness ; numerous masques and 
sonnets came from his pen ; wrote also in prose. His genius 
remained unnoticed i\nder the Stuarts. 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUAET PERIOD. 403 

SAMUEL BUTLER (1612-1680), son of a Worcestershire farmer : 
author of a mock-heroic poem, called ' Hudibras,' which was a 
famous satire upon the Puritans. 

JOHN DRYDEN (1631-1700), a great poet: made poet-laureate 
by Charles II. ; author of numerous plays, and satires in verse. 
Chief works : ' Absalom and Achitophel,' the most perfect and 
powerful satire in our language; 'The Hind and Panther;* 
* Alexander's Eeast ;' a translation of Virgil's JEneid into English 
verse. 



II. PROSE WRITERS. 

JEREMY TAYLOR (1613-1667), Bishop of Down after the Resto- 
ration : wrote on theology : author of ' Liberty of Prophesying,* 
' Holy Living,' * Holy Dying,' and many other works. 

EDWARD HYDE (1608-1674), a Royalist: exiled during the 
Commonwealth ; created Earl of Clarendon by Charles II. ; author 
of the * History of the Great RebeUion.' 

JOHN BUNYAN (1628-1688), a tinker of Bedford: became a 
Baptist preacher ; imprisoned twelve years for preaching ; wrote 
in prison the celebrated ' Pilgrim's Progress.' 

RICHARD BAXTER (1615-1691), a famous Presbyterian mi- 
nister: one of the ejected Nonconformists in 1662; a most 
voluminous writer of theology ; chief work, ' The Saints' Ever- 
lasting Rest.' 

JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704), a philosophical writer : lived in exile 
during the latter years of Charles II. and James II. ; author of 
an ' Essay on the Human Understanding,' a work still famous. 

GILBERT BURNET (1643-1715), a Scotchman: exiled by James II.; 
a friend of William III., and appointed by him Bishop of Salis- 
bury ; a copious writer ; chief work, ' History of his own Time.' 



LEADING DATES OF THE STUART PERIOD. 

GENERAL EVENTS. 

A.D. 

Hampton Court Conference . . 1604 James I. 
Gunpowder Plot . . . .1605 „ 

Authorised Translation of the Bible 1611 



404 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 





A.D. 




Raleigh, beheaded 


. 1618 


James I, 


Trial of Hampden 


1637 


Charles I. 


The < Covenant ' made in Scotland 


1638 


» 


Execution of Archbishop Laud 


1645 


»> 


Colonel Pride's Purge 


1648 


i» 


Execution of Charles I. . 


1649 


>» 


Death of Cromwell . . . . 


1658 




The Savoy Conference 


1661 


Charles II. 


The Great Plague . 


1665 


» 


Fire of London .... 


. 1666 


>» 


The Dutch in the Medway 


. 1667 


it 


Rye House Plot 


. 1683 


j> 


Trial of the Seven Bishops 


1688 


James II. 


Landing of the Prince of Orange 


• >f 


j» 


Massacre at Glencoe. 


. 1692 


Wm. ni. & 


Trial of Sacheverell . 


. 1710 


Anne. 



&MARy. 



CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES. 



Union of the English and Scottish 
Crowns 

Petition of Right . . . . 

The Long Parliament begins . 

Star Chamber and High Commission 
Court abolished .... 

Expulsion of the Long Parliament 
by Cromwell .... 

Richard Cromwell resigns the Pro- 
tectorate 

Restoration of the Monarchy . 

Act of Uniformity passed 

The Conventicle Act .... 

The Five-Mile Act .... 

The Test Act 

The Habeas Corpus Act . 

The Second Declaration of Indulgence 

The Revolution 

The Bill of Rights .... 

The Act of Settlement 

Union of the English a^d Scottish 
Parliaments 



A.D. 

1603 
1628 
1640 

1641 



James I. 
Charles I. 



1653 


Common WKALTH. 


1659 


)> 


1660 


Charles II. 


1662 


j> 


1664 


,. 


1665 


» 


1673 


» 


1679 


)) 


1688 


James II. 


»» 


>t 


1689 


Wm. III. & Mary 


1701 


William III. 



1707 Anne. 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUAET PERIOD. 405 



CHANGES OF DOMINION, ETC. 



James Town, Virginia, founded 
Capture of Jamaica . 
Dunkirk acquired 
Gibraltar taken ... 



A.D. 

1607 
1655 
1658 
1704 



James I. 
Commonwealth. 

Anne. 



WARS, BATTLES, TREATIES. 








The Great Rebellion. 






Battle. 


Victor. 






Late. 


Edgehill 


Indecisive . 


* 


• • « 


1642 


Brentford 


Royalists 


• 


, 


>> 


Reading 


Roundheads 


. , 


, , 


1643 


Stratton 


Royalists . 


. 


. . 


>> 


Chalgrove Field . 


Royalists (Hampden morta] 


ly woundec 


) » 


Atlierton Moor 


>» • • 


. 


. 


>> 


Lansdown 


Favourable to Royalists . 


. 


>» 


Roundway Down . 


Royalists . 




. . 


11 


Bristol (Siege of) . 


>» • • 




. . 


» 


Newbury 


Indecisive . 




. . 


»» 


Nantwich 


Parliamentarians 




. 


1644 


Cropredy Bridge . 


Royalists . 




. 


i» 


Marston Moor 


Parliamentarians 




. 


If 


Newbury 


Indecisive . 




• • 


tt 


Naseby 


Parliamentarians 




» . . 


1645 


Rowton Moor 


)9 




, , , 


>» 


Preston 


»l 




> . . 


1648 


Dunbar 


Cromwell . 




> • • 


1650 


Worcester . 


n • • 




• . . 


1651 



Secret Treaty of Dover 

Battle of Sedgemoor . 

„ Eilliecrankie 

„ Boyne . 

„ La Hogue 

Treaty of Ryswick 

Battle of Blenheim 

„ Ramilies 

„ Oudenarde 

„ Malplaquet 

Treaty of Utrecht 



A.D. 

1670 Charles II. 

1685 James II. 

1689 Wm. III. & Mart. 

1690 

1692 

1697 

1704 Anne. 

1706 

1708 

1709 

1713 





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EH 


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l-H 

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02 


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02 




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09 

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v.-'i— I 



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GEOEGE I. 



407 



THE HOUSE OF HANOVER, or BRUNSWICK. 

(GUELPH LINE.) 





A.D. 


GEORGE I. (great-grandson of James I.) began to Keign 1714 


GEORGE II. (son) . . . . 


1727 


GEORGE III. (grandson) . . * . 


„ 1760 


GEORGE IV. (son) .... 


1820 


WILLIAM IV. (brother) . 


„ „ 1830 


VICTORIA (niece) .... 


1837 



GEORGE I. 
Born 1660 A.D. Began to Reign 1714 A.D. Died 1727 A.D. 



Thfi King's Accession. 
Discontent of the Nation. 
The Eiot Act. 

Rebellion in favour of the Pre- 
tender. 
The Triple Alliance. 



The Quadruple Alliance. 
War with Spain. 
The South Sea Bubble. 
Death and Character of 

King. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



the 



The King's Accession. Discontent of the Nation. 
The Riot Act. 

In accordance with the Act of Settlement, George, 
Elector of Hanover, the son of Sophia, grand-daughter of 
James I., ascended the throne of England, and thus united 
the crowns of Britain and Hanover, Some of the ministers 
of the late queen had plotted to bring in the Pretender, 
but their schemes were defeated by Anne's sudden death, 
and the active measures of the opponents of the House of 
Stuart. The friends of the new dynasty, however, re- 
quired the exercise of all their skill and power to establish 



408 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

tlie sovereign firmly on the throne. There were many 
circumstances which tended to make George I. unpopular. 
He was, on his accession, fifty-four years of age, and was 
quite unused to English manners, and unable to read or 
write the English language. His person was coarse and 
heavy ; his mind was uncultivated, and his tastes low. His 
wife, Sophia of Brunswick, had been left in imprisonment 
in Hanover, condemned to perpetual confinement for some 
alleged misconduct. Popular rumour assigned various 
reasons for this harshness, which were unfavourable to the 
king's popularity. As might be expected, he was de- 
votedly attached to his n^ive country, and England was 
nothing in comparison with dear Hanover. He chose his 
advisers from the Whig party, which had called him to the 
throne. The Tories, thus deprived of their ascendency in 
the State, were further annoyed by the measures of their 
opponents. A committee of the House of Commons was 
appointed to enquire into the conduct of the Tory leaders 
with regard to the treaty of Utrecht. Oxford, Bolingbroke, 
and Ormond, were strongly suspected of intriguing with 
the Pretender, and were impeached for high treason. 
The latter two escaped to France, but Oxford was im- 
prisoned in the Tower for two years, and owed his life to 
the disagreements of the two Houses of Parliament. 

The prosecution of the Tory leaders caused great excite- 
ment in the country. The riots which attended Sacheve- 
rell's trial in the previous reign were renewed. Roaring 
mobs surrounded the coach which conveyed Oxford to the 
Tower, and on every side were heard the shouts, * Down 
with the Whigs ! ' — ' High Church and Sacheverell for ever I ' 
Dissenting meeting-houses were attacked and destroyed, 
and in various parts of the kingdom the riotous spirit of 
the mob broke out into similar acts of violence. Many of 
the Tories commenced an active correspondence with the 
Pretender, who saw in the general discontent of the nation 
a fair prospect of regaining his father's throne. So un- 
popular did the new king become, that the German ladies 
of the Court could scarcely take an airing without being 
jeered by the people. Rumour said that they came to 



GEOEaE I. 409 

England ibr the purpose of amassing money to send to 
Hanover, and the humbler classes especially felt very sore 
on the subject. One day, one of these ladies, irritated or 
alarmed by the popular cries, put her head out of the 
carriage window, and said in broken English, ' Why do 
you abuse us, good peoples ? We come for all your goods ? ' 
On this a fellow in the mob roared out, * Yes, and for all 
our chattels too.' The Government, alarmed at the symp- 
toms of disaffection, succeeded in passing the Riot ■• lyi c 
Act, which empowered a magistrate to disperse, 
by military force, after an hour's warning, a mob 
of more than twelve persons, assembled to the danger of 
the public peace. Previous to this, a reward of 100,000Z. 
had been promised for the capture of the Pretender in 
case of his landing. 

Eebellion of 1715 in favour of the Pretender. 

In the meantime the Jacobites at home and abroad were 
not idle. The Pretender, known on the Continent as the 
Chevalier de St. George^ was making active preparations 
for a descent upon the island, but his hopes were suddenly 
blasted by the death of Louis XIV., who had promised 
his help. The Eegent of France, the Duke of Orleans, had 
no personal ties whatever with the Chevalier, and declined 
to assist the project of invasion. 

An insurrection, however, had already broken out both 
in Scotland and England. The Earl of Mar, confident in 
the success of the Jacobite cause, raised the standard of 
revolt at Braemar, and proclaimed the Pretender 
as James VIII. Ten thousand men responded to ^ ^' ' 
his call, and, fixing his headquarters at Perth, he 
was soon master of all Scotland north of the 
Forth. The royal forces under the command of the Duke 
of Argyle, took post at Stirling, and prevented the advance 
of Mar into the Lowlands. 

The success of the rising in Scotland excited the Jacobites 
of the north of England to action. In Northumberland 
the Earl of Derwent water and Mr. Forster, member of 



410 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Parliament for the county, took up arms for the Pretender. 
Only 300 horse answered to their call, and these were 
badly provided with weapons. Some Scottish lords on the 
borders rose at the same time, and a body of Highlanders 
was sent by the Earl of Mar to assist the movement. The 
combined forces of the insurgents advanced into Lancashire 
as far as Preston. There they were surrounded by the 
royal troops under General Carpenter, and all, to the num- 
ber of about 1,400, surrendered at discretion. On the same 
day, at SherifFmuir, in Perthshire, the Duke of Argyle en- 
countered the Earl of Mar, and checked his advance south- 
wards. (November 13.) Though the victory was unde- 
cided, the advantage on the whole remained with Argyle, 
since Mar, fearing to renew the combat, retreated. The 
account of the battle was so confused and contradictory, 
that a ballad-monger of the time says : — 

There's some say that we wan, 

Some say that they wan, 

Some say that nane wan at a', man, 

But ae thing I'm sure 

That at Sheriff-muir, 

A hattle there was, which I saw, man, 

And we ran, and they ran, 

And they ran, and we ran, 

And we ran, and they ran awa, man. 

The Pretender, expelled from France by the regent, re- 
solved to revive the waning fortunes of his party by his 
personal presence. On December 22, he landed at Peter- 
head, attended only by six gentlemen, and without arms, 
money, or stores. To encourage his dispirited friends, he 
passed through Brechin and Dundee in royal state, and 
entered Perth with all the pomp of majesty. There much 
valuable time was wasted in preparations for his coronation 
at Scone. Meanwhile Argyle, having received reinforce- 
ments, advanced towards Perth. The news of his approach 
caused the utmost consternation in the Pretender's camp, 
and the Highland army speedily retreated to Montrose. 
The Chevalier, losing all hope, secretly took boat with 
Mar and some others, and escaped to France, leaving the 



GEORGE I. 411 

army to its fate. Great was the indignation of the clans 
on hearing of their desertion by their leaders, and, filled 
with grief and rage, they dispersed to their mountain 
glens. 

But a sad fate awaited most of the prisoners taken at 
Preston. The men of rank were taken to London and 
brought to trial for high treason. Sentence of death was 
passed upon the Lords Derwentwater, Kenmure, Nithis- 
dale, and several others, but only the three named were 
left for execution. Many condemned Jacobites, and Forster 
among the number, escaped from prison and sought refuge 
on the Continent. Nithisdale was saved by the devotion 
of his wife. She dressed her lord in her own clothes, and 
he escaped by night in that disguise out of the Tower. 
Derwentwater and Kenmure suffered on Tower Hill, and 
the estates of the former were given to Greenwich Hos- 
pital. Four persons of inferior rank were hanged in London, 
and twenty-two others in Lancashire, while 1,000 were 
banished to America. Thus ended The Fifteen. 

The disturbed state of the country led the Government 
to alter the law of 1694, which provided for triennial 
parliaments. It was considered unsafe to have recourse 
to a general election in the face of the dangers threatening 
the State both within and without, and therefore 
the Whig party succeeded in passing the Septen- 1716 
nial Act, which extended the duration of Parlia- a.d. 
ment to seven years. 

The Jacobites continued their intrigues throughout the 
reign, but there was no serious conspiracy on foot till after 
the birth of the young Pretender at Kome in 1720. Two 
years afterwards, Atterbury, Bishop of Kochester, and 
several noblemen, formed a project for seizing the Tower, 
the Bank of England, and other public places, and pro- 
claiming James IH. The plot was revealed, and a barrister 
named Layer, suffered death, while Atterbury was deprived 
and banished. 



412 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

The Triple Alliance. The Quadruple Alliance. War 

with Spain. 

After the failure of The Fifteen, George visited his 
continental dominions. For the purpose of enlarging and 
securing his possessions, he bought irom Denmark, for the 
sum of 1,500,000/., the duchies of Bremen and Verden, 
which had lately been taken from Sweden. Charles XII., 
king of the latter country, was highly indignant at this 
sale, and began to intrigue with the courts of Spain and 
Eussia for the restoration of the Stuarts. The English 
Government, in self-defence, concluded with France and 
Holland a treaty known as the Triple Alliance, but the 
death of the King of Sweden, at the siege of Fredericshall, 
put an end to all fear from that quarter. 

Spain, however, continued her intrigues to render null 
and void the treaty of Utrecht, which had deprived her 
of many of her dominions. Cardinal Alberoni, the able 
minister of the Spanish court, had already succeeded in 
conquering Sardinia, and he further resolved to recover 
the other Italian possessions of Spain. His ambitious 
schemes led to the formation of the Quadruple Alliance, 
between England, Austria, France, and Holland. (1718 
A.D.) An English fleet under Admiral Byng was sent to the 
Mediterranean. A battle was fought with the Spaniards 
off Cape Passaro, in which the enemy's fleet was 
1^1 ft' ^^^^^* destroyed. The following despatch of a 
certain Captain Walton, who was sent in pursuit of 
some ships which managed to escape from the fight, 
is worthy of mention. * Sir, we have taken and destroyed 
all the Spanish ships and vessels which were upon the coast ; 
the number as per margin. I am, &c., G. Walton.' 
Alberoni, furious at this defeat, fitted out an armament 
at Cadiz to aid the Pretender. Off Finisterre, a storm 
dispersed the squadron of invasion, and only two frigates 
managed to reach Scotland. Three hundred men disem- 
barked, and being joined by some Highlanders, took up a 
strong position at Galashiels. There they were attacked 
by a royal force and defeated. (1 7 1 9 a.d.) In the same year 



GEORaE I. 413 

an English squadron captured Vigo, while some French 
troops invaded the north of Spain. Pressed on all sides, the 
Spanish king concluded a treaty of peace, by which he 
undertook to dismiss Alberoni from office, to evacuate 
Sicily and Sardinia, and to renounce all pretensions to the 
French crown. (1720 a.d.) 

Five years later, Austria and Spain entered into close 
alliance, and as the former country had established at 
Ostend a rival East India Company, the English Govern- 
ment strongly suspected that there was a secret understand- 
ing between the two Powers, injurious to the interests 
of England and Hanover. George therefore formed an 
alliance with France and Prussia, and concluded the treaty 
of Hanover. (1725 a.d.) As Eussia seemed inclined to 
join the confederacy against England, a squadron was sent to 
the Baltic to check any hostile movement from that quarter. 
Another fleet was sent to blockade Porto Bello, but the 
men were decimated by the ravages of yellow fever. Mean- 
while the Spaniards wasted a great deal of powder and 
shot in attempting to recapture Gibraltar. Austria soon 
withdrew from the struggle, and made peace with the 
allies, but Spain refused to take any part in the treaty, 
and continued in a state of war for two years after the 
death of George I. 

The South Sea Bubble. 

In 1710, the floating debt of the nation amounted to 
about 10,000,000Z. Harley, then Lord Treasurer, proposed 
that the creditors should be incorporated as a company of 
merchants trading to the South Seas, and receive from the 
Government the privilege of monopoly. The plan was well 
received, and the * South Sea Company ' was formed, 
Spain, however, was too jealous to allow English traders 
free access to her dominions in the Southern Seas. All 
that could be obtained from that country was the permis- 
sion, known as the Assiento, to supply Spanish America 
with 4,800 negroes annually, and to send yearly a cargo 
of goods to the same coasts. These privileges were secured 
19 



414 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

by the treaty of Utrecht. The disputes with Spain which 
occurred in this reign were prejudicial to the interests of 
the Company, but it flourished in spite of all oppo- 
1720 sition, and its stock w^q^ in much request. In 
A.'D. 1720, the directors of the Company made an offer 
to the Government to buy up the irredeemable 
annuities, amounting to 800,000^. a year, which had been 
granted in the last two reigns. They imdertook to pay off 
the entire national debt, if the different public securities 
were reduced to one fund in their hands, and if certain 
commercial privileges were guaranteed to them. They 
offered, besides, to provide the Government with 7,500,000Z. 
if their terms were accepted. The subject was warmly 
debated in the House of Commons, and the company's plan 
was finally adopted. The annuitants were not compelled 
to change their government securities for the company's 
stock, but the directors took such care to proclaim the 
prospects and advantages of the South Sea trade that most 
of the annuitants agreed to their terms. The directors then 
proceeded to call for new subscriptions, and in answer to 
their representations of the enormous profits to be gained, 
money came in like water. It was rumoured that Spain 
was about to grant free trade to all her colonies ; that 
Gibraltar was to be exchanged for a part of Peru ; and that 
the gold and silver mines of South America would pour 
their treasures into England. Thus dazzled by the hope 
of wealth, crowds daily thronged Change Alley, eager to 
invest money in the company's stock. So great was the 
competition that a share of lOOZ. was sold for 1,000Z. 
Numerous bubble companies arose at the same time to take 
advantage of the spirit of speculation. Projects of the 
most absurd kind found willing dupes. One scheme was 
the establishment of a company for carrying out an under- 
taking of great advantage, but nobody was to know its 
purpose. Each subscriber was to deposit 2/., and receive a 
share of lOOZ. In less than six hours, 1,000 shares were 
taken, and the projectors decamped with their spoil the 
same day. The highest in the land took part in these 
gambling transactions. Change Alley was crammed from 



GEOEGE I. 415 

morning to night with dukes, lords, country squires, par- 
sons, dissenting ministers, brokers and jobbers, and even 
ladies ; and the crowd was often so great that shares were 
sold at one end of the Alley ten per cent, higher than at 
the other. The Prince of Wales joined in the general 
scramble, became governor of a "Welsh Copper Company, 
and pocketed 40,000/. 

The South Sea Company bubble soon shared the fate of 
numerous others. The stock, which had risen to 1,000, fell 
to 135, and thousands of families were reduced to beggary. 
Great was the popular indignation when the swindle was 
discovered. In public meetings held all over England, the 
vengeance of Parliament was invoked upon the heads of 
the directors. Parliament took the matter in hand, and on 
enquiry it was found that many public men, and even per- 
sons about the court, had profited largely by the company's 
schemes. A severe punishment fell upon the directors 
whose estates were confiscated for the relief of the beggary 
which they had caused. The task of restoring national 
credit fell upon Sir Eobert Walpole, afterwards Chancellor 
of the Exchequer, wh(5 arranged by law to assign nine mil- 
lions of South Sea Stock to the Bank of England, a similar 
amount to the East India Company, and to repay the bonus 
of seven and a half millions which the Government had re- 
ceived. In this way, the proprietors and subscribers 
received about one-third of their money, but it was long 
before public credit was thoroughly restored. 

Death and Character of the King. 

In the summer of 1727, the king set out once more to 
visit his continental dominions. He had got as far as the 
frontiers of Germany, when he was suddenly taken with a 
fit of apoplexy. Kecovering his speech, he cried out, 
* Osnabruck ! Osnabruck ! ' — the residence of his only 
surviving brother. His courtiers pushed on, but before 
the carriage reached the gate of the palace, the king had 
breathed his last. He was buried at Hanover. 

George I., in spite of many vices, had displayed much 



416 HISTOKY OF ENaLAND. 

sagacity in ruling England. To his qualities of industry 
and punctuality in the discharge of business matters much 
of his success is due. The treatment of his wife, Sophia 
Dorothea of Zell, who had been imprisoned for thirty-two 
years, will always remain a blot upon his character. 

His children were — George, who became king ; and 
Sophia Dorothea, who married Frederick William, Elector 
of Brandenburg, afterwards King of Prussia. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

In 1717, the Convocation of the English clergy was sup- 
pressed, chiefly through the dissensions arising from what 
was called the Bangorian Controversy. Most of the clergy 
were Tories, and many of them Jacobites. Hoadley, Bishop 
of Bangor, a Whig in politics, had published a sermon 
highly offensive to the majority of his clerical brethren, and 
brought down upon his head the censure of Convocation. 
The disputes which arose in consequence caused the sup- 
pression of the clerical assembly, which was not allowed to 
meet again for the transaction of business until the reign 
of Victoria. 

Among the improvements of the reign may be mentioned 
the introduction of silk-throwing machines from Italy, 
Inoculation for the small-pox was first practised in England. 



GEORGE II. 



417 



GEOEGE II. 
Born 1683 A.D. Began to Eeign 1727 A.D. Died 1760 A.D. 



Walpole's Administration. 
Excise Scheme. 
Porteous Eiots. 
AVar with Spain. 
"War of the Austrian Succession. 
Rebellion in favour of the Young 
Pretender. 



The Seven Years' War. 

Conquest of Canada. 

Affairs in India. 

Clive and the Conquest of 

Bengal. 
Death and Character of the King. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



Walpole's Administration. Excise Scheme. 

Riots. 



Porteous 



George II. ascended the throne in the forty-fifth year of 
his age. Like his father, he was particularly attached to 
Hanover, where his early years had been spent. His resi- 
dence in England had given him some knowledge of 
English customs and language, but he spoke English with 
a foreign accent. His wife, Caroline of Anspach, was a 
woman of great sense and virtue, and to her shrewdness 
and prudence he was mainly indebted for the peace and 
stability of his government. 

George, when Prince of Wales, had lived on very bad 
terms with his father, and had been excluded from court. 
He was, therefore, by no means friendly disposed towards 
his father's chief minister. Sir Eobert Walpole. But on 
the advice of his queen he retained the serviced of this 
statesman, who, for the first fifteen years of the reign, dis- 
charged the duties of Prime Minister. Walpole's policy 
was directed by a desire to maintain peace with all nations, 
and under his guidance, trade thrived, and the country 
prospered. Bribery is said to have been the secret of his 



418 HISTOKY OF ENaLAND. 

long political ascendency, but it required more than ordinary 
tact to conduct the affairs of government in those days. 

The dispute with Spain, which had remained unsettled 
in the previous reign, was terminated by the treaty of 
Seville (1729), and for the next ten years English commerce 
with the Spanish colonies made rapid strides. One of the 
next noteworthy measures of Walpole's adminis- 
1733 tration was his Excise Scheme. The Customs 
A.D. and Excise formed two important sources of the 
public revenue. The Customs are duties upon 
certain foreign goods imported into the country, and the 
Excise is a tax levied upon articles manufactured at home. 
Walpole, for the purpose of putting a stop to smuggling, 
especially in the articles of tobacco and wine, proposed to 
make the duties upon them payable as Excise. His plan 
was to warehouse the goods, to charge duty on their re- 
moval, and make the dealers subject to the Excise laws. 
Thus he guaranteed a great saving to the public revenue, 
less taxation, and an increased trade. * London^ he said, 
would become a free po?'t, and, in consequence, the marhet 
of the world.^ The Excise Bill met with the greatest oppo- 
sition from the Tory party and the country generally. So 
great was the clamour, and so threatening the attitude of 
the people, that Walpole thought it prudent to withdraw his 
measure. Though supported by a majority in Parliament, 
he said * he would not be the minister to enforce taxes 
at the expense of blood.' 

In Scotland, smuggling was carried on to a large extent, 
and the smuggler was quite a popular character. The exe- 
cution of a man engaged in this traffic caused 
1736 serious riots in Edinburgh. Two smugglers, 
A.D. named Wilson and Robertson, were arrested and 
condemned to death, but the former saved his 
companion by an act of daring which made him a popular 
hero. While returning from divine service under the 
guard of four soldiers, he suddenly seized one by each hand, 
and a third by his teeth, and thus enabled his comrade to 
escape. Wilson, by this act, became quite an idol, and the 
authorities were greatly afraid that his rescue might be 



GEORGE II. 419 

attempted. On the day of execution, the city-guard, under 
Captain Porteous, was called out. The populace, unable 
to attempt a rescue, waited till the body was cut down, and 
then began to pelt the soldiers and hangman with stones. 
Porteous ordered his men to fire into the mob, and several 
persons were killed or Avounded. For this act he was 
brought t,o trial and condemned to death, but a reprieve 
was sent down from London. The news of a respite caused 
the greatest excitement in Edinburgh, and the people 
resolved that Porteous should die. Forcing open the Tol- 
booth prison, they dragged their victim to the Grass 
Market and hanged him on a dyer's pole. The English 
Government, enraged at the outrage, proposed to take 
harsh measures against the Scottish capital, but milder 
counsels prevailed. The provost of the city was disabled 
from holding any office under government, and a fine of 
2,000Z. was imposed upon the townspeople for the benefit 
of the widow of Porteous. This affair left a very bad feel- 
ing in Scotland against the English Government, which 
bore bitter fruit in the Jacobite rising a few years later. 

War with Spain. 

The death of the queen, in 1737, deprived Walpole of a 
warm friend, and encouraged his opponents in Parliament 
to look for his speedy downfcill. Disaj^pointed in> this 
expectation, they determined to up^et his peaceful policy 
by forcing England into war. At this time there was 
much ill-feeling in the country against Spain, on account 
of the insults Vhich English traders had received from the 
Spaniards. The Spanish Government had permitted, by 
the Assiento, a shipload of English merchandise to be 
sent annually to her colonies in South America. But the 
profit of this trade was so great that all sorts of excuses 
were made for sending English ships to the Spanish main, 
and an extensive smuggling trade was carried on. To pre- 
vent this traffic, the Spaniards placed guard-ships along the 
coasts. Intruding vessels were, consequently, searched, 
and their crews sometimes insulted and outraged. A 



420 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. " 

certain Captain Jenkins returned home with one of his ears 
wrapped up in cotton, which he said had been torn off by 
the commander of a Spanish guard-ship who had boarded 
his sloop on the high seas. Stories of this kind caused 
such a ferment in England that the Opposition in Parlia- 
ment made a handle of them to overthrow Walpole's 
Government. The Prime Minister, though conscious that 
Spain had a just cause of grievance, was compelled by the 
popular outcry to demand reparation from the Spanish 
court. The King of Spain offered to pay 140,000Z. for the 
injuries said to have been received by English merchants, 
and agreed to enter into negotiations for the better regula- 
tion of trade between the two countries. Spain, however, 
refused to give up the right of search — a right which every 
strong maritime Power has always claimed and exercised ; 
and Walpole, rather than resign his post, gave way to the 
clamour of his opponents, and entered upon a war 
which he knew to be unjust and impolitic. In 
London joy-bells from every steeple greeted the 
proclamation of the war, but Walpole Avas heard to mutter, 
' They may ring their bells now; they will before long be 
ivringing their hands.' 

In the same year, Admiral Yernon was sent to Spanish 
America with a small fleet. Porto Bello, on the Isthmus 
of Darien, was taken, plundered, aiid destroyed, with trifling 
loss to the victors. His success was magnified into a great 
triumph, and it was resolved to despatch an imposing force 
to South America. In 1740, Yernon and General Went- 
worth, with 115 ships and 12,000 soldiers, set out to attack 
Carthagena, the strongest place on the coast. Want of 
harmony between the commanders brought ruin upon the 
expedition. The storming- party were repulsed with the 
loss of half their number ; the troops were decimated by 
an epidemic, and the enterprise was abandoned in utter 
disgrace. 

While these events were taking place on the eastern 
coast of America, another expedition under Anson was 
sent to Peru. While doubling Cape Horn, his squadron 
was dispersed, and only three ships reached the Southern 



GEOEGE II. 421 

Seas. With this small force he ravaged the western coast, 
took the town of Paita with treasure amounting to 30,000/., 
and then, having destroyed two of his ships, he crossed the 
Pacific with the remaining one, in search of new adventures. 
He captured, after a severe fight, a large Spanish galleon, 
having on board a million and a half of dollars, and then 
returned to England by way of the Cape of Good Hope, 
after an absence of three years and nine months, being the 
first Englishman since Drake who had sailed round the 
world. 

The disasters of the Spanish war overthrew Walpole's 
administration. He was compelled in 1742 to retire from 
office, but the king rewarded his long services with the title 
of Earl of Orford. He died three years afterwards. The 
war with Spain merged into the continental war, which 
troubled the peace of Europe at this time. 

War of the Austrian Succession. 

The continental war, known as the War of the Austrian 
Succession, in which England was embroiled, arose in the 
following manner. In 1740, Charles VI. of Austria died, 
leaving the succession, by a will called the Pragmatic 
Sanction, to his daughter Maria Theresa. Though most 
of the continental Powers had agreed to this arrangement, 
the death of Charles was immediately followed by a general 
scramble for his dominions. The King of Prussia, Frederick 
the Great, seized upon Silesia; the Elector of Bavaria 
claimed Hungary and Bohemia, and, supported by France, 
entered Vienna. Encouraged by the success of these 
claimants, the kings of Spain, Poland, and Sardinia de- 
manded a share of the spoil. The high-spirited Maria 
Theresa withdrew to Hungary, and threw herself upon the 
loyalty of her nobles. Assembled in their Diet, they 
answered her appeals with flashing swords, and cries of 
* We Avill die for our king, Maria Theresa.' England re- 
mained true to the Pragmatic Sanction, and was the only 
aUy upon which Austria could depend. In 1743, some 
British troops under Lord Stair advanced into Germany. 



•422 HISTOEY OE ENGLAND. 

Mustering, with their Austrian allies, about 40,000 men, 
they were confronted at the village of Dettingen, on the 
Maine, by a much larger French force, under Marshal 
Noailles. Stair suffered himself to be outmanoeuvred, and 
was so closely beset that retreat seemed impossible. At 
this crisis, George II. joined the army. A false move on 
tlie part of the French saved the allied forces, and in the 

-„-„ battle that followed, Noailles was driven across 

the Maine with great loss. The battle of 

Dettingen is memorable as being the last in 

which a British sovereign was present. The French were 

driven out of Germany, and the English troops withdrew 

to Flanders. 

In the following year, France formally declared war 
against England, and proceeded to assist the cause of the 
Pretender. A French fleet, having a strong force under 
Marshal Saxe, appeared off the coast of Kent, but a storm 
prevented a landing, and the sight of an English squadron 
caused the enemy to retire. 

The year 1745 is memorable for the defeat of the 
English at Fontenoy. Marshal Saxe had suddenly in- 
vested the important town of Tournay with a large army. 
A much inferior force of allies, under the command of the 
Duke of Cumberland, son of George II., marched to its 
relief. The British troops, in spite of the difficulties of 
the ground, and the superior forces of the enemy, broke 
through the French centre, and were advancing towards 
the village where Louis XV. and the dauphin had taken 
up their quarters, when they found themselves deserted by 
their allies, and in danger of being cut off. The retreat 
which followed, in the face of batteries on every side, 
called forth the admiration of the French, who said, as 
they saw the unbroken j-anks retire step by step, that such 
a retreat was a victory. The battle of Fontenoy gave 
France possession of Flanders. A month later, a British 
force captured Louisberg, the capital of Cape Breton. The 
Young Pretender, in the same year, made a daring attempt 
to regain the throne of his fathers ; but an account of this 
will be given separately. 



GEOKGE II. 423 

The remaining years of the war passed away without 
any very great events. In 1747, Admiral Anson defeated 
a French fleet oiF Cape Finisterre ; and a few months later, 
Admiral Plawke gained a similar victory oiF Belleisle. 

The following year restored peace to Europe, for a short 
time, by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. France - ^.^ 
and England agreed to restore their conquests, 
and Spain agreed to the peace without any re- 
ference to the right of search. Austria had made peace 
with Prussia in 1745, and the latter country was allowed 
to retain Silesia. In the same year, Maria Theresa's 
husband, Francis, Grand Duke of Tuscany, was elected 
emperor, and the brave lady, one of the most illustrious 
of Austrian sovereigns, held her throne till her death 
in 1780. 

Rebellion in aid of the Young Pretender. 

The exiled Stuarts, taking advantage of the war which 
has just been described, resolved to make another attempt 
to recover their lost inheritance. Charles Edward, son of 
the ' Pretender,' called in Jacobite songs ' Bonnie Prince 
Charlie,' set out from France with two ships and seven 
attendants to conquer an empire. A British man-of-war 
encountered the expedition, and drove one of the vessels 
back to Brest, while the other, containing the prince, 
made all sail for the Hebrides. The Young Pre- 
tender effected a landing at Moidart on the coast ^ J, ^ ' 

• 174-T 

of Inverness, and unfurled his banner at Glen- 

finnan, where he was soon joined by many 
Highland chieftains. He was then in his twenty-fifth 
year, full of ardour and hope, and well calculated, by his 
manners, courage, and address, to win attachment and 
devotion. In person he was tall, well-formed, and active ; 
his face was handsome, his eyes blue, and his hair fell in 
ringlets upon his shoulders. 

When Charles marched from Glenfinnan with 1,600 
men, the Government was quite unprepared. There were 
Bcarcely 3,000 soldiers in the whole of Scotland. With 



424 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

some of these, the royalist commander, Sir John Cope, 
marched northward from Stirling to crush the rebellion in 
the bud, but incautiously advancing to Inverness, he left 
the southern counties defenceless. Prince Charles, taking 
advantage of the mistake, quitted the mountains and 
entered Perth, where he was joined by new adherents, 
amongst whom was Lord George Murray. Having pro- 
claimed his father king, as James VIIL, he pushed on to 
Edinburgh, and without any opposition took up his abode 
in the palace of Holyrood. 

In the meantime. Cope, having embarked his force at 

Aberdeen, landed at Dunbar, where he was joined by two 

regiments of dragoons under Qolonel Gardiner, which had 

retired from Edinburgh in the utmost fright. With an army 

of about 3,000 men, he advanced to the Scottish capital. 

Young Charles, with an equal force, marched out to meet 

him, and at Preston-Pans the two armies came in contact. 

By a sudden onslaught of the Highlanders at early dawn, 

the royalist forces were scattered like chaff before 

^ ' ' the wind, and scarcely two hundred escaped. The 

artillery, colours, baggage, and military chest fell 

into the hands of the victors. This success gave 

the Young Pretender possession of Scotland, and drew to 

his side many wavering partisans. 

The news of the battle of Preston-Pans caused the 
utmost consternation in England ; but fortunately for the 
House of Brunswick, the victor returned to Edinburgh to 
reduce the castle, which had hitherto held out, and raise 
reinforcements. After loitering in the Scottish capital for 
nearly six weeks, the Chevalier, at the head of 5,000 men, 
resolved to try his fortune in England. Entering by the 
western border, he advanced through Carlisle, Lancaster, 
Manchester, and proceeded southwards as far as Derby. 
Though cheered and welcomed in many places along the 
route, the people refused to take arms in his cause, and 
Manchester was the only town which furnished him with 
any recruits, and there Colonel Townley joined his banner 
with two hundred men. The Highland chiefs, disap- 
pointed at the indifference of the English JacobiteS; and 



aEORGE n. 425 

aware of the danger that threatened them from the British 
troops fast gathering on all sides, resolved to beat a retreat. 
General Wade, they said, with an army of 10,000 men, 
was only a few marches in their rear ; the Duke of Cum- 
berland, with an equal force, was close in their front ; and 
if it were possible to give these the slip, another army on 
Finchley Common remained to bar their march to London. 
Charles remonstrated in vain, and, thoroughly dejected, 
he consented to return to Scotland. On December 6, 
the Highland army commenced its northward march. 
The retreat was as skilfully conducted as the advance. 
Penrith was reached before the royal armies came in sight, 
and there the pursuit of ^he Duke of Cumberland was 
gallantly checked. The River Esk was crossed on De- 
cember 20 ; Glasgow was safely entered in a few days ; and 
the Highlanders proceeded at once to invest Stirling. 
General Hawley, advancing to the relief of the town, met 
with a disgraceful defeat. But the cause of the Pretender, 
in spite of this success, was virtually lost. Many of the 
Highland clans lost heart and withdrew to their homes, 
and the appearance of the Duke of Cumberland with a 
strong army forced the remainder to retreat from Stirling 
to the mountains. After three months of inaction among 
the Grampians, the duke came upon the rebel army, 
numbering about 5,000 men, on Culloden Moor, 
near Inverness. In less than an hour, the rebel ^mao ' 
forces were in full flight, hotly pursued by the 
victors. No mercy was shown to the vanquished, 
and the duke's victory was tarnished by the slaughter of 
many innocent people and the destruction of Highland 
villages. Long afterwards, the victorious commander was 
known as the ' Butcher.' 

The unfortunate Chevalier fled to the mormtains. A 
reward of 30,000Z. was set upon his head; but though 
during five months of wandering and hiding he had to 
trust to the fidelity of many persons of all ranks, no one 
was found base enough to betray him. After many hair- 
breadth escapes and romantic adventures, he embarked on 
board a French privateer, and, though chased by two 



426 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Englisli cruisers, safely landed near Morlaix, in Brittany. 
^ Meantime, the courts of law were busy in trying 

1 tTAft ' ^^^ adherents of his cause. Many of the chief- 
tains escaped, but the lords Kilmarnock, Balme- 
rino, and Lovat were beheaded on Tower Hill. 
They were the last persons who suffered in this manner in 
England, and the axe and block used on that occasion are 
still to be seen in the Tower of London. About eighty 
persons in all suffered death for their share in the ' Forty- 
Five,' and some of them underwent all the hideous penalties 
of high treason. The clansmen were forbidden to wear 
the Highland costiune ; tenure of land by military service 
was declared unlawful ; the chieftains were deprived of 
most of their power ; and the office of sheriff, long considered 
hereditary, was vested in the crown. 

The * Forty-Five ' was the last serious effort of the 
exiled Stuarts- to regain the throne, though Jacobite 
intrigues continued a few years longer. James, the ' Old 
Pretender,' died in 1765. His son, Charles Edward, 
expelled from France by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 
found refuge in the territories of the pope, and for a long 
time kept up a correspondence with his friends in England. 
About the year 1750 he secretly visited London. Dis- 
appointment at last broke down his fortitude, and, as- 
suming the title of Count D' Albany, he became a confirmed 
drunkard, and died of apoplexy at Rome, January 30, 
1788. His only brother, Henry Benedict, took the empty 
title of Henry IX., but he lived quietly at Eome to a good 
old age as Cardinal of York. During the latter part of 
his life, he and his brother's widow lived upon the bounty 
of George III. of England. He, the last male heir of the 
Stuart line, died in 1807, bequeathing to the English king 
the crown jewels which James H. had taken with him on 
his retreat to the Continent in 1688; and many valuable 
documents. 

The Seven Years' War. Conquest of Canada. 

After the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, many causes of dif- 
ference arose between England and France, especially with 



GEOEGE II. 427 

reference to tlie interests of the two countries in India and 
America. In the latter country, England had established 
colonies on the eastern coast, while France had colonised 
Canada and Louisiana. The French proposed to connect 
these distant settlements by erecting a chain of forts from 
Niagara to the mouth of the Mississippi, and thus shut out 
the English colonists from the lucrative fur trade with the 
Indians. As the French persisted in their design, in spite 
of the remonstrances of the British Government, orders 
were given to the colonists to prevent them by force. In 
1754, Major Washington, afterwards so famous in the 
American War of Independence, headed an expedition 
against Fort Duquesne, now called Pittsburgh, on the Ohio. 
In the following year, troops were sent from England under 
General Brad dock ; but this officer, unused to warfare in 
the forests of America, fell into an ambuscade, and was 
killed with 700 of his men, while operating against the 
same fort. The relations with France were thus in a criti- 
cal state, when a war broke out on the Continent, known 
from its duration as the Seven Years' War, in which 
England took part. 

The cause of the quarrel is to be attributed to the ambi- 
tion of Frederick the Great of Prussia. Austria formed a 
secret treaty with France, and another with Russia, Poland, 
Saxony, and Sweden, for the partition of Prussia. The 
plot was revealed to Frederick, who immediately seized 
Dresden, the capital of Saxony, and so began the - „_^ 
Seven Years' War. England, already in a state 
of war with France, sided with Prussia. India 
and America were the chief theatres of the strife as far as 
our own country was concerned, but the opening campaigns 
were not favourable to our arms. 

Just before the declaration of war, the French sent a 
fleet and army to capture the island of Minorca, then be- 
longing to England. An English squadron under Admiral 
Byng was sent to its relief. In an action with the enemy, 
Byng allowed the French fleet to escape, and, instead of 
remaining to relieve the fort closely invested by the land 
forces, sailed away to Gibraltar to refit. This want of 



•128 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

judgment caused the loss of the island, and produced, in 
England the greatest indignation. Byng was brought to 
trial on the charge of cowardice, and shot on the quarter- 
deck of the ' Monarch,' in Portsmouth harbour. 

The year 1757 was also unfavourable to the English arms. 
The command of the army in Hanover had been intrusted 
to the Duke of Cumberland, but the disastrous defeat of 
Prussia at Kolin enabled the French to so hem in the 
duke as to force him to agree to the Convention of Closter- 
Seven, by which his 30,000 men were disbanded. The 
fortunes of England seemed now ^t their lowest ebb, when a 
reconstruction of the ministry at home changed the tide of 
affairs. The moving spirit of the new ministry was 
William Pitt, 'the Great Commoner.' Born in 1708 
and educated at Oxford, he commenced life by serving as 
a cornet in the Life Guards Blue. In 1735, he entered 
Parliament as member for Old Sarum, and became so 
troublesome to Walpole's ministry, that he was dismissed 
from the army. Henceforth he devoted himself to politics, 
and his talents as a statesman and an orator soon obtained 
for him a leading place in the government of the country. 
Directing all his genius to retrieve the disasters of the 
Englisli arms, the vigour of his policy was felt far and 
wide, and the fortunes of England were everywhere at- 
tended with success. 

In 1758, Prussia, having won the great victories of 
Eossbach and Leuthen, was encouraged to persevere by a 
subsidy of 670,000Z. from England, while Pitt was planning 
vast campaigns against France in all parts of the world. 
The ratification of the Convention of Closter-Seven was 
refused ; the Hanoverian army was reorganised, and the 
Electorate recovered. In Africa, Senegal and Goree were 
taken from the French. In America, Louisburg and Fort 
Duq[liesiie met with a similar fate. The successes in India 
will be related by themselves. Nearer home, an expedition 
was successful in destroying St. Malo and its shipping, and a 
like success attended an attack upon the works of Cherbourg. 

The following year was still more propitious to our arms. 
On sea the English fleets were everywhere victorious. 



GEOKGE 11. 429 

Admiral Boscawen defeated the French off the bay of 
Lagos in Spain ; but the greatest victory was won in 
QiUiberon Bay, where Admiral Hawke, undeterred by a 
pitiless tempest and the dangers of an unknown coast, 
almost annihilated a superior French force. These suc- 
cesses entirely crippled the naval power of France, and 
prevented her from undertaking any operations of im- 
portance during the remainder of the war. Meantime on 
land, Prussia, assisted by some British troops, gained the 
decisive battle of Minden, where the French were only 
saved from destruction by Lord George Sackville, who com- 
manded the English cavalry, and thrice refused to charge. 

In America, Pitt's plans were crowned with success. 
Proposing the conquest of Canada, this eminent statesman 
organised four different expeditions, all of which were to 
meet under the walls of Quebec. The expedition from 
England, consisting of 8,000 men and a fleet of forty-two 
ships, was placed under the command of General Wolfe, a 
young officer of great promise. Arriving at his destina- 
tion before the other three corps, "Wolfe resolved to attack 
the city, though it was protected by a superior French force 
under Montcalm, the governor. Landing his men by 
night at the foot of the Heights of Abraham, which 
commanded the town, he directed them to scale the 
steep cliffs as quietly as possible, and in the morning 
the French, to their dismay, saw the English troops 
drawn up on the top of the table land. In the battle 
that followed, both commanders received mortal wounds. 
As "Wolfe was leading his men to the final ^-cn 
charge, two shots brought him down, and he was 
carried to the rear mortally wounded. As he lay 
dying, an officer shouted ' See how they run ! ' * "Who run ? ' 
said "Wolfe. ' The enemy,' replied he. ' Then God be 
praised I ' answered "Wolfe ; * I shall die happy ; ' and with 
these words he expired, at the early age of thirty-three. 
Quebec surrendered a few days afterwards, and in the 
following year the whole of Canada was reduced. The 
English were also successful in the "Wast Indies, where the 
French lost Guadaloupe. 

The remainder of the war belongs to the next reign. 



430 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

Affairs in India. Clive and the Conquest 
of Bengal. 

While the English arms were reaping laurels in America 
and nearer home, important affairs were taking place in 
India. When the East India Company began its opera- 
tions in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the dynasty of the 
Monguls, or Moguls, held the supreme authority in India. 
The founder of the Mogul Empire was Timour, or Tamer- 
lane, who, descending from the mountains of Hindu Coosh, 
stormed the imperial city of Delhi in 1398. His de- 
scendants, among the most celebrated of whom was Baber 
and Akbar, extended their rule till nearly the whole 
peninsula was united under the sceptre of Aurungzebe 
(1666-1707). After his death, many of the native princes 
threw off the Mogul yoke, and asserted their independence. 
The collapse of the empire was the signal for needy ad- 
venturers to try their hands in founding kingdoms, and 
thus Bengal became the domain of one, Mysore the realm 
of another, and in the Carnatic rajahs and nabobs innu- 
merable assumed the reins of government. The Great 
Mogul still nominally ruled at Delhi, but his real authority 
was only of a limited extent. The disorders which accom 
panied the decline of a great empire laid India open to 
European conquest. 

The Portuguese and the Dutch were the first European 
nations who formed commercial relations with the natives. 
In 1599, some London merchants started the East India 
Company, and a few years afterwards set up small trading 
factories, first at Surat, and then at Madras (Fort St. 
George), and Tegnapatam (Fort St. David), on the Coro- 
mandel coast. To these places Bombay was added in the 
reign of Charles II., and towards the close of the same 
century, a grant of land on the Hooghly was obtained. On 
the latter site a fort was erected, called Fort William, 
around which the great town of Calcutta has since grown. 
The French, following the example of their neighbours, 
took possession of«the Mauritius, Bourbon, and other 
islands, and established a great settlement at Pondicherry, 



GEOEGE II. 431 

and another at Chinsura in Bengal. Neither the English 
nor the French had at first any idea of making territorial 
conquests. Trade was the object of both peoples, but 
commercial rivalry led to quarrels and intrigues, which 
finally ended in a British Indian empire. 

During the war of the Austrian succession, the French 
governor of the Mauritius captured Madras (1746), and 
kept possession of it till the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
About this time Dupleix, the governor of Pondicherry, 
taking advantage of the quarrels of the native princes, 
formed the design of establishing a French empire in India. 
The Carnatic was just then the scene of a struggle between 
rival competitors for the dominion. Dupleix interfered in 
behalf of one of the claimants, and succeeded in the under- 
taking. As a reward, he was made Viceroy of the Carnatic, 
and seemed in a fair way of realising the dream of his 
ambition. The English, regarding with dismay the suc- 
cesses of their rivals, were compelled in self-defence to 
take part in the quarrels of the native chiefs, and very 
naturally took opposite sides to the French. 

Fortunately for English interests, there was a young 
man in the employ of the East India Company whose 
genius enabled him to cope successfully with the ambitious 
Dupleix. Robert Clive, a clerk at Madras, who went to 
India at the age of eighteen, was the man destined to lay 
the foundations of our empire in that country. The French, 
everywhere successful, were besieging the only ally of the 
English in Trinchinopoly, when Clive, abandoning the pen 
for the sword, put himself at the head of a small force, and 
suddenly captured Arcot (1751). This success saved 
Trinchinopoly, and so turned the tide of victory against 
the French that Dupleix, foiled in his hope of conquest, 
was eventually compelled to return to Europe, leaving 
his rival master of the situation. 

In the year 1756, the sovereignty of Bengal fell to a 
young man named Surajah-Dowlah, who hated the English 
exceedingly. Picking a quarrel with the settlers at Cal- 
cutta, he marched against the place, induced the small 
garrison of 200 men to surrender, and then threw into a 



432 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

dungeon all the Europeans, consisting of 145 men and one 
woman. This cell, or Black Hole, was 18 feet long 
by 14 feet wide, and had only two small windows, closely 
barred, and on a level with the ceiling. The suiFerings of 
the unfortunate prisoners were horrible. It was the hottest 
season of the year ; scarcely a breath of air could enter 
the cell, and many of the entombed victims were severely 
wounded. In their agony they fought, and shrieked, and 
tore each other down in vain attempts to reach certain 
water-skins which their brutal guards pushed in mockery 
against the bars of the windows. The night of 
horror passed away, and when the door was 
opened in the morning only twenty-three were 
found alive, and of these several died in a day or two. 
Calcutta was sacked, and the English forbidden to settle 
any more in the province. 

Clive, now raised to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, was 
acting as governor of Fort St. David, when news of the 
outrage reached him. Collecting a force of 2,400, of whom 
only 900 were Europeans, he recaptured Calcutta, and 
compelled Surajah-Dowlah to restore all the factories and 
the privileges which the English had previously possessed. 
He then turned his arms against the French settlement 
ofChandanagore, and took it. This attack roused the anger 
of the Nabob, who collected all his forces to crush the 
daring Englishman. With an army of 50,000 men and an 
enormous train of artillery, the Nabob marched to Plassey. 
Clive, who could only muster 3,000 men and ten pieces of 
artillery, of which force two-thirds were Sepoys, resolved 
at all hazards to attack the host of the enemy. Complete 
success attended this deed of daring, and the victorious 
battle of Plassey made the English masters of 
Bengal. In the Carnatic, war with the French 
was continued with varying success till the be- 
cyinning of 1761, when the English took Pondicherry, razed 
its walls to the ground, and put an end for ever to the 
schemes of French ambition in India. Clive then returned 
home loaded with wealth, received an Irish peerage, and 
entered the House of Commons. 



aEOEGE II. 433 



Death and Character of the King. 

Whilst success was crowning the arms of England in all 
parts of the world, George II. suddenly died at Kensington, 
of heart disease, within a few days of completing his seventy- 
seventh year. (October 25, 1760.) 

In person, George was a man of small stature, good 
figure, and fair complexion. In character, he closely re- 
sembled his father, both morally and intellectually. His 
partiality for the Whigs, and fondness for Hanover, for 
which he spent no end of treasure, were very marked. 

He had, in all, eight children : Frederick Prince of 
Wales ; Anne, married the Prince of Orange ; William 
Duke of Cumberland; Mary, ' married the Landgrave of 
Hesse Cassel ; Louisa, married the King of Denmark ; and 
three other daughters. The Prince of Wales was killed 
by the blow of a cricket- ball in 1751. Of his nine 
children, the eldest was George III., who succeeded his 
grandfather on the throne. 



Miscellaneous Facts. 

This reign is memorable for the rise of the sect of the 
Wesleyans or Methodists. The author of this religious 
body was John Wesley, who, when a student at Oxford, 
used to hold meetings for prayer and religious discussion 
in his college rooms. Having laboured in Georgia for 
some time with his brother Charles as missionaries, they 
returned to England, and, dissatisfied with the apathy of 
the Church, commenced open-air preaching. The same 
good work was carried on by a distinguished preacher 
named George Whitfield, who founded the sect known as 
Calvinistic Methodists. These clergymen met with great 
opposition from the dignitaries of the Church ; but religion 
owes much to their zeal and self-sacrifice. The movement 
of the Wesleys roused the English Church from its indif- 
ference, and imparted to it an impulse which is felt even to 
the present day. 



434 HISTORY OF ENaLAND. 

A reform of the Calendar, or New Style of reckoning 
time, took place in this reign. Hitherto the year had 
been calculated according to the standard adopted by Julius 
CjEsar, which gave to the year 365 days 6 hours. This 
was afterwards found to be too much by eleven minutes. 
In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII. reformed the Julian Year, 
and reduced it to its exact length. The New Style, as it 
was called, was adopted by all European countries except 
England, Eussia, and Sweden. As the error in reckoning 
had now amounted to eleven days, England, by Act of 
Parliament, accepted the New Style in 1752. It was re- 
solved to omit eleven days in the month of September by 
calling the 3rd of the month the 14th ; and by the same 
Bill the year was to commence, on the 1st of January, 
instead of March 25. This change of time caused much 
dissatisfaction among the masses, who called it a popish 
measure, and thought that they had been robbed of eleven 
days. Sweden followed the example of England in 1753 ; 
but Russia still reckons her year according to the Old 
Style. 

The Law of Marriage was regulated by Parliament in 
1753. Previously, marriage could be performed at any 
place or time without parental consent or any conditions 
whatever. To prevent scandals and abuses for the future, 
a law was passed by which marriages could only be allowed 
after banns or licence. 

Georgia was colonised by General Oglethorpe in 1732 ; 
and Halifax, in Nova Scotia, called after the Earl of 
Halifax, was founded in 1750. Among the improvements 
of the reign, the most noteworthy are, the establishment of 
the British Museum in 1753 ; the invention of Fahren- 
heit's Thermometer in 1730, and Hadley's Quadrant in 
1731 ; the construction of Time-pieces in 1735 ; the in- 
vention of the Lightning Conductor by Franklin in 
1735 ; the commencement of the Bridgewater Canal by 
Brindley in 1758 ; and the first improvement of the 
stocking-loom, known as the * Derby ribs,' by Jedediah 
Strutt in 1759. 



GEOEGE n. 435 



LEADING AUTHORS UNDER GEORGE I. AND GEORGE II. 

POETS. 

JOSEPH ADDISON (1672-1719), distinguished more in prose : 
chief poems, ' The Campaign,' and ' Cato,' a tragedy ; author of 
many beautiful essays in the ' Spectator ' and the ' Tatler.* 

ALEXANDER POPE (1688-1744), the greatest poet of his time, 
and also a distinguished prose writer : chief works, ' The Eape 
of the Lock,' an * Essay upon Man,' * Moral Essays,' a transla- 
tion of Homer's Iliad. 

JAMES THOMPSON (1700-1748), a poet of Eoxburghshire : 
chief works, * The Seasons,* in blank verse, and the ' The Castle 
of Indolence.' 

EDWARD YOUNG (1681-1765), author of ' Night Thoughts.' 

ALLAN RAMSAY (1686-1758), a native of Lancashire: author 
of many short poems: chief work, a pastoral drama called 
♦ The Gentle Shepherd.' 



PROSE WRITERS. 

SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727): Professor in Cambridge 
University : discovered the Law of Gravitation ; chief works, 
the ' Principia,' a treatise on Natural Philosophy. 

SIR RICHARD STEELE (1676-1729), a famous essayist: started 
the ' Tatler' in 1709, and the ' Spectator' in 1711 ; wrote also 
some comedies. 

DANIEL DEFOE (1661-1731), in early life a Whig newspaper 
writer ; at the age of fifty-eight commenced prose fiction ; chief 
work, ' Eobinson Crusoe,' published in 1719. 

JONATHAN SWIFT (1667-1745), Dean of St. Patrick's Dublin, 
an eminent satirical writer : chief works, ' Gulliver's Travels, 
' The Tale of a Tub,' and the ' Battle of the Books.' Died 
mad. 

HENRY ST. JOHN (Viscount Bolingbroke) (1678-1751), a 
brilliant orator and distinguished political writer: author of 
' Letters on the Study and Use of History.' 

JOSEPH BUTLER (1692-1752), Bishop of Durham: chief work, 
* The Analogy of Eeligion to Nature.' 



436 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



LEADING ARTISTS. 



SIR JAMES THORNHILL (1676-1734), a famous painter: 
painted the Dome of St. Paul's Cathedral, the Halls of Green- 
wich Hospital, and Blenheim Palace, and the Cartoons of 
EafFaelle. 

SIR JOHN VANBRTJGH (1666-1726), a great architect: chief 
works, Castle Howard, Yorkshire, and Blenheim Palace. 



GEOKGE IIL 



437 



GEORGE III. 
Born 1738 A.D. Began to Keign 1760 A.D. Died 1820 A.D. 



The King's Accession. 
End of the Seven Years' "War. 
Peace of Paris. 
John "Wilkes. 

The War of American Indepen- 
dence. 
"War of the French Eevolution. 
Treaty of Amiens. 
The Irish Eebellion. 
Union of England and Ireland. 
Second "War with France. 



Battle of Trafalgar. 

The Peninsular War. 

"War with the United States of 

America. 
Napoleon's Escape from Elha. 
Battle of "Waterloo. 
Affairs in India. 
"Warren Hastings. 
Eegency of the Prince of Wales. 
Death and Character of the 

King. 



Miscellaneous Facts. 



The King's Accession. End of the Seven Years' War. 
Peace of Paris. John Wilkes. 

George III., eldest son of Frederick Prince of Wales, suc- 
ceeded his grandfather in the twenty-third year of his age. 
He was the first monarch of his house who could be re- 
garded as English in feeling. His first speech to the 
Parliament contained words which showed that England 
had obtained at last a native king. * Born and educated 
in this country,' said George, ' I glory in the name of 
Briton.' The coronation of the young king was witnessed 
by Charles Edward Stuart, the Young Pretender, who had 
come over in disguise, and mixed with the crowd in West- 
minster Abbey. 

The accession of George III. wrought many changes. 
During the last two reigns the Whigs had held the reins of 
20 



438 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

power, but the education of the young king had been 
chiefly directed by Lord Bute, a Scotch nobleman of 
opposite political views ; and his inclination, in conse- 
quence, led him towards the Tory party. This" soon 
became evident in the changes which were made in the 
ministry ; and the Tories, so long excluded from office, 
rejoiced in the appointment of Lord Bute as Secretary of 
State, and took courage. The purity of George's domestic 
life produced a most beneficial change in the manners of 
the higher classes. His wife, the Princess Charlotte of 
Mecklenburgh-Strelitz, shared her husband's piety and 
simple tastes; and, for the first time since the reign of 
Charles I., the English court gave the example of a pure 
and happy home. 

Meanwhile, the Seven Years' War was being carried on 
with vigour under the direction of Pitt, Secretary for 
Foreign AiFairs. In 1761, English fleets had captured 
Dominica in the West Indies, and BeUeisle on the coast of 
Brittany. Just about that time, France secretly formed 
with Spain and Naples a Family Compact, by which they 
guaranteed the integrity of each other's dominions. Pitt, 
then in negotiation with France for peace, construed the 
treaty as a threat to England, broke oiF further corre- 
spondence, and urged immediate war against Spain. The 
peace party in the Cabinet, headed by Bute, rejected the 
proposal, and the ' Great Commoner ' resigned his post of 
minister. He refused all offers of royal favours, except 
a pension of 3,000Z. a year, and the title of Baroness 
Chatham for his wife. 

The new ministry, of which Lord Bute was the chief, 
was compelled soon after to declare war against Spain 
(1762). In the West Indies, the English carried every- 
thing before them. The French lost all their possessions in 
that quarter ; but the most brilliant exploit was the capture 
of Havanna from the Spaniards, who lost at the same time 
fourteen sail of the line, and treasure amounting to three 
millions sterling. Spain was equally unfortunate in the 
East and on the seas. Manilla, the capital of the Philippine 
Islands, was taken by an expedition from Madras, and two 



GEOEGE III. 439 

galleons laden wkh silver from America fell a prey to 
English cruisers. Our allies in Germany were also suc- 
cessful. 

The war was brought to a close by the Treaty of Paris. 
France ceded to England Canada, Nova Scotia, -r, ■. ,^ 
Cape Breton, Tobago, Dominica, St. Vincent, -iwcq' 
Granada, and Senegal, but she was to have the 
right of fishing on the banks of Newfoundland, 
and two islets as fishing stations. Minorca was to be 
restored in exchange for Belleisle. Spain ceded Florida, 
and the right of cutting log-wood in Honduras, in exchange 
for Havanna. In the same year, Prussia and Austria made 
peace by the treaty of Hubertsburg, by which the pos- 
session of Silesia was confirmed to the former country. 

The peace of Paris was opposed by Pitt as being inade- 
quate to the money spent in the war. The national debt 
had risen to 122,600,000^., and that statesman thought this 
expense demanded better terms for England. The people 
generally were of the same opinion. Bute became most 
"Unpopular, and in many places he was burnt in the effigy 
of a boot-jack (John, Lord Bute). Frightened by the 
popular clamour, he resigned, and was succeeded by George 
Grenville. The king, in his speech to Parliament, de- 
clared that the peace was honourable to the country. 
John Wilkes, member for Aylesbury, and editor of a paper 
called the * North Briton,' made a scurrilous attack upon 
the speech in No. 45 of his paper, and charged the king 
with having uttered a lie. The new minister had Wilkes 
arrested by a general warrant (that is, one in which no 
person is named) and sent to the Tower, but the Lord 
Chief Justice ordered his release as a member of Parlia- 
ment. The House of Commons voted by a large majority 
that the ' North Briton,' No. 45, was a false, scandalous, 
and seditious libel, and that the said paper should be 
burnt by the hands of the common hangman. Meanwhile, 
"Wilkes brought an action against the Secretary of State for 
his illegal arrest, and obtained 1,000Z. damages and a 
condemnation of general warrants. He himself had then 
to answer the charge of libel, for which he was found 



440 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. " 

guilty and outlawed. Returning from France in 1768, he 
was elected member of Parliament for Middlesex, but the 
House refused to receive him. The popular favour, which 
had encouraged him in his previous contest with Govern- 
ment, returned with ten-fold force. He was regarded as 
the champion of liberty ; pictures and busts of him were 
sold everywhere ; ' Wilkes and liberty ' resounded through- 
out the kingdom ; and riots in his favour occurred in many 
places. Four times the men of Middlesex returned him to 
Parliament, in spite of the refusal of the Commons to allow 
him to take his seat. In 1769, he proceeded against Lord 
Halifax for the seizure of his papers, and obtained 4,000Z. 
damages. He eventually became Lord Mayor of London, 
and was allowed at last to take his place in the House of 
Commons. 

The War of American Independence. 

During the Seven Years' War that had been carried on by 

England against the French settlements in North America — 

all of which were captured — she involved herself in a heavy 

debt. The English settlements then consisted of thirteen 

colonies, having a population of two millions of whites and 

half a million of coloured people. Grenville, the English 

Prime Minister, proposed to increase the revenue by impos- 

^ ^- „ ing the Stamp Act upon the American colonists, by 

which he expected to receive 10,000Z. annually. This 

measure created the greatest opposition in America. 

The colonists adopted the principle of no taxation icithout 

representation^ and, as they were not represented properly in 

their own assemblies, over whose acts the Crown had a veto, 

they denied the right of England to tax them. 

A change of ministry brought about a repeal of the 
obnoxious Stamp "Act in the following year. This ad- 
ministration soon gave way to one under the leadership of 
Pitt, who was raised to the peerage, with the title of Earl 
of Chatham. The new ministry, in 1767, passed a Bill 
for levying in America import duties upon glass, paper, 
painters' colours, and tea. The colonists opposed these 



GEORGE III. 441 

with the same determination as before, and resolved not to 
pay. In 1770, Lord North became Prime Minister, and 
repealed all the offensive duties except that on tea ; but 
these concessions did not allay the spirit of opposition in 
America. Eather than pay the tax of threepence per 
pound upon tea, the colonists abstained altogether from the 
use of the beverage, except when they could get a supply 
from the numerous smugglers, who drove a good trade on 
the coast during this wordy strife. 

In 1773, three ships, laden w^th tea, having entered the 
port of Boston, were boarded by twenty daring men, dis- 
guised as Mohawk Indians. They knocked out the heads 
of 343 chests of tea, and flung into the sea theii contents, 
valued at 18,000Z. 

The Home Government, enraged at this outrage, pro- 
ceeded to punish the people of Boston by passing a Bill to 
remove the Custom-house of the port to the more loyal 
town of Salem (1774). This measure was followed by the 
IMassachusetts Government Bill, dissolving the House of 
Assembly in that State, and enacting that its members 
should henceforth be appointed by the crcwn. These 
acts of vengeance were strongly opposed by the Earl of 
Chatham and Charles James Fox. At the same time, 
Benjamin Franklin, residing in London as the agent of the 
Massachusetts House of Assembly, did his best to effect a 
reconciliation, and avert the dreadful contest which seemed 
imminent. While troops were pouring into Boston to 
enforce the laws, all the States, except Georgia, met in a 
General Congress at Philadelphia, from which they issued 
the celebrated ' Declaration of Eight,' claiming their privi- 
leges as British subjects, and resolved not to hold any 
commercial intercourse with the mother-country 
until their grievances were redressed. An ■*■'** 
address, forwarded to the king from the Congress, 
and supported by the eloquence of Chatham, Burke, and 
Fox, received no consideration. Neither the Government 
nor the colonies were disposed to give way, and nothing 
remained but an appeal to arms. 

The first outbreak of hostilities was occasioned by an 



442 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

attack of the Britisli troops, under General Gage, upon the 
town of Concord, where the defiant colonists were holding 
a House of Assembly, and concentrating military stores, 
and raising militia. After a night's march from Boston, 
the troops forced their way into Concord, and destroyed 
the stores and munitions. But the work of destruction 
w^as followed by a sudden attack of the infuriated multi- 
tude, and the soldiers were pursued out of the town, 
leaving many of their comrades dead in the streets. The 
road to Boston ran through great forests, in which lurked 
hunters armed with the deadly rifle, and the British ranks 
were .much thinned before they reached Lexing'toil. At 
this village the retreating troops received re- 
iiyr^ ' ii^fo^cements, and, turning upon their pursuers, 
dispersed them with loss. This expedition cost 
Gage 250 men in killed and wounded, and 
greatly encouraged the colonists. A month afterwards a 
second Congress assembled at Philadelphia, and appointed 
as their commander-in-chief George WasMngton, a 
Virginian gentleman, then about forty-three years of age. 
Meanwhile, Gage had allowed himself to be shut up in 
Boston by 20,000 raw colonial troops, who entrenched 
themselves on Breed's Hill, an eminence commanding the 
town. General Howe, arriving from England with re- 
inforcements, took the chief command, and proceeded to 
assault the Americans behind their entrenchments. The 
battle, called Bunker's Hill, from a neighbouring height, 
ended in the defeat of the colonists ; but the victory cost 
the British 1,000 men, and taught them to 
1 ^*Jf\ ' ^^sp^c* ^^ valour of their opponents. About the 
same time the Americans, tinder Montgomery and 
Arnold, invaded Canada, in the hope of per- 
suading its people to join them. Montreal fell into their 
hands, but an attack upon Quebec failed ; Montgomery was 
slain in the assault, and the invaders, after continuing the 
siege through the winter, were driven out of the province. 

Meanwhile, in the summer of 1775, Congress made one 
last effort to conciliate the Home Government by sending 
a petition known as ' the Olive Branch.' To this appeal 



GEOEGE III. 443 

the only answer given was a large increase of land and sea 
forces, and a declaration in Parliament to take resolute 
measures against the conspirators and insurgents in 
America. 

Early in the following year, the British troops, com- 
pelled to evacuate Boston, sailed' to Halifax, and thus 
enabled Washington to take New York. Then the Congress 
at Philadelphia, consisting of delegates from all the thirteen 
States, issued their famous Declaration of Inde- 
pendence. In August, Howe left Halifax, and i 77^' 
effected a landing on Long Island, where he was 
joined by the fleet of his brother. Admiral Lord 
Howe. The united forces defeated Washington at 
Brooklyn with great loss, and recaptured New York. 
Matters were going on badly with the Americans, when 
their leader revived their sinking courage by a sudden 
attack upon the garrison of Trenton, and capturing nearly 
1,000 Hessian troops. This affair closed the campaign. 

The year 1777 opened with another surprise of the Ame- 
ricans upon the garrison of Princeton ; but Washington's 
success was cut short by a defeat at Brandywine, which 
enabled the British to occupy Philadelphia. This victory 
raised hopes in England that the subjection of the colonies 
was not far distant, but a serious disaster befell the English 
arms, and changed hopes to fears. General Burgoyne, 
marching from Canada with 10,000 men to co-operate with 
a force from New York, was so beset in the woods by the 
Americans, that he could not even reach Albany. Disap- 
pointed in not meeting with the expedition from New York, 

and harassed by the enemy, he retreated to Sara- ^ 

Oct 17 
toga, where he was soon surrounded. For five ^ '„ ' 

days the gallant general resisted the pangs of hunger ' 
and the overwhelming masses of his foes, in the hope 
that relief would come. At length he was compelled to sur- 
render, with all his brass cannon, muskets, and stores. His 
force, numbering then about 6,000 men, were retained as 
prisoners till the close of the war, as Congress denied the 
right of General Gates sending them home on condition they 
would not again serve against the colonists. 



444 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

The surrender of Burgoyne led France to join the 
Americans. From the beginning of the conflict, the 
French sent men, money, and munitions of war, to the 
insurgent States ; and among the vokmteers the name of 
the young and brave Marquis de la Fayette was the most 
distinguished. The entrance of France into the 
quarrel filled the British ministry with anxiety. 
Lord North saw that Chatham was the only man 
able to guide the country through the perils which 
threatened it, and he strongly urged the king to place the 
veteran statesman at the head of the Government; but 
George disliked the earl for his independence, and turned 
a deaf ear to the advice of his minister. In Parliament 
many members, alarmed at the serious turn of affairs, im- 
plored the Government to acknowledge the independence 
of the colonies rather than engage in a war with France. 
To oppose a motion in favour of such a peace, the venerable 
Chatham left a sick-bed to appear in Parliament. Though 
old, frail, and sick, he spoke with all his wonted fire and 
eloquence against the dismemberment of the empire ; and 
when he rose again to renew his attack upon the proposal, 
he fell in a fit upon the floor of the House of Lords. A 
month later, the veteran statesman and foremost English- 
man of the day expired, in his seventieth year. Mean- 
. while. Lord North had repealed the duty on tea, and had sent 
commissioners to America to treat with the colonists, but the 
concession came too late — independence only would satisfy 
them now. The campaign this year was not distinguished 
by any great operations. Howe was succeeded in the chief 
command by Sir Henry Clinton, who evacuated Phila- 
delphia to fall back upon New York. In the latter part of 
the year, troops sent to Georgia quickly reduced that pro- 
vince. Nearer home, an engagement took place between 
the English and French fleets off Ushant, but, from some 
misunderstanding between the English commanders, the 
battle was indecisive, and caused a great outcry in the 
country. 

Our diflficulties were increased in the next year by the 
entrance of Spain into the quarrel. Her part in the war 



GEORGE III. 445 

chiefly consisted of an unsuccessful attempt to recover 
Gibraltar, which, under the able defence of General Elliot, 
endured a siege of three years (1779-1782). In America, 
there were marches, skirmishes, sieges, and burnings; but 
no event of importance occurred. 

The sixth campaign was marked in America by the 
capture of Charleston by Clinton, and the desertion of 
the American general Arnold, who offered to the British 
the fortress of West Point on the river Hudson. Major 
Andre, an English oflScer who arranged the affair, was 
captured, tried by court-martial and hanged as a spy. In 
Europe many troubles threatened England. At home, the 
Gordon riots distracted the Government, and abroad the 
northern powers took up a menacing attitude. Russia, 
Sweden, Denmark, and Holland endeavoured to make a 
profitable trade between the belligerents, and it^of^ 
formed an armed neutrality, to maintain by 
force of arms, if necessary, the principle that 
' free ships make free goods.' Towards the close of the 
year Holland became so hostile that England declared war 
against her. 

The following year witnessed a disaster to our arms in 
America, which virtually terminated the w^ar. Lord Corn- 
wallis, who had almost reduced the Carolinas, was com- 
pelled to withdraw his forces to Yorktown, in Virginia. 
While waiting there for reinforcements from New York, a 
French fleet entered the Chesapeake, and Cornwallis, finding 
himself surrounded and in danger of starvation. 



Oct. 19 
and De Grasse. This misfortune to the British 



surrendered his force of 7,000 men to Washington 

^ 1781 



A.D. 

arms decided the war ; and, though the Govern- 
ment continued the struggle for another year, scarcely any 
military operations took place in America. On sea, indeed, 
the English fleets maintained their supremacy. Admiral 
Parker engaged a Dutch fleet near the Doggerbank (1789), 
and Eodney severely defeated the French in the West 
Indies, oil' Guadaloupe (1782). The island of Minorca, 
however, capitulated to a combined French and Spanish 
force, but all their efforts to retake Gibraltar failed. Its 



446 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

gallant defender was rewarded for his services with the 
title of Lord Heathfield. 

Towards the close of the year, negotiations for peace 
were entered upon with the Americans, and in the follow- 
ing January the Treaty of Versailles was concluded by 
the contending countries, excepting PloUand, which made 
its own terms a few months later. By this treaty 
•ityQo England acknowledged the independence of the 
United States, with the right of fishing on the 
coast of Newfoundland. To France we restored 
St. Lucia and Tobago, in the West Indies, and Chandana- 
gore and Pondicherry in the East, and received in return 
Dominica, Grenada, and four other islands ; at the same 
time, we were to give up our claim for the dismantling of 
Dunkirk. To Spain, we ceded Minorca and the Floridas, 
and in return, our right to cut logwood in Honduras was 
guaranteed. To Holland we returned all our conquests 
excepting Negapatam. The expense of this war added 
100,000,000/. to the National Debt. 

War of the French Revolution. Treaty of Amiens. 

The ten years' peace which followed the struggle with 
the American colonies was broken by the terrible outbreak 
of the French Eevolution. Among the various causes of 
this great event, three stand very conspicuous: (1) the 
oppression of the lower orders by a proud and insolent 
nobility ; (2) the infidel writings of such men as Voltaire 
and Eousseau ; (3) the reckless extravagance of the French 
court necessitating increased taxation. The general dis- 
content of the French people was greatly augmented by the 
spread of republican principles, which- followed the return 
of the soldiers who had taken part in the war of American 
independence. The storm, which had long been gathering, 
at length burst in 1789. 

The States General, consisting of the general assembly 
of the three estates of nobles, clergy, and commons, had 
scarcely met at Versailles, when the last estate took the 
title of National Assembly, and compelled the other two 



GEOEaE III. 447 

orders to sit with it in one chamber. This change in the 
constitution was soon followed by revolutionary violence. 
A month later the Bastile, or state prison in Paris, was 
stormed and destroyed by the people ; the citizens of the 
capital were formed into the National Guard ; the tricolour 
flag — the symbol of unity, fraternity, and equality — was 
adopted as the national standard ; and the lower orders 
became masters of France. In one night, the National 
Assembly abolished all the rights and privileges of the 
aristocracy. The clergy were disposed of in the same 
manner, and the lands of the Church seized as national 
property. These changes were accompanied with violent 
excesses throughout France, and very many of the nobility, 
seeing greater dangers in store, left the country. The 
king, Louis XVI., remained quietly at his post till June 
1791, when, terrified by the excesses of the ultra-revolu- 
tionists, or Jacobins, he attempted to escape out of France, 
but was captured and replaced at the head of the Govern- 
ment. Leopold, Emperor of Germany, brother of Marie 
Antoinette, the beautifiil queen of Louis, formed a treaty 
with Prussia to interfere in the affairs of France, and early 
in 1792, their combined armies, attended by many of the 
emigrant nobles, crossed the frontier, and put to flight the 
French forces. This invasion aroused the Parisians to fury. 
Kings, they said, were conspiring against their liberties, 
and no king should rule at Paris. Twice the mob stormed 
the Tuileries ; and when Louis sought refuge in the Assem- 
bly from the fury of the rabble, he was deposed and sent 
with his family to the prison of the Temple. A republic 
was then declared, and the reins of government fell into 
the hands of such men as Danton, Marat, Desmoulins, and 
Eobespierre. No mercy was shown to any suspected of dis- 
affection to the revolution ; 5,000 persons were slaughtered 
in the prisons of Paris during the month of September, and 
the horrid guillotine, lately invented, was used to dispatch 
more easily and quickly the unhappy victims of a merciless 
republic. AJl Europe stood aghast at the frenzy of France ; 
and when the National Convention issued its decrees, pro- 
mising help to all nations who desired to enjoy the liberty 



448 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

of Paris, self-defence compelled tlie chief Powers to take 
np arms against a people who, intoxicated with blood, 
aimed to turn the world upside down. The execution of 
Louis XVI. and his beautiful wife, Marie Antoinette, 
caused the dismissal of the French ambassador from 
London, and England, Holland, and Spain united with 
Austria and Prussia to stem the tide of anarchy and 
bloodshed which, issuing from France, threatened 
17QQ *^ overwhelm the whole of Europe. The alli- 
ance of the European Powers seemed only to 
increase the fury of the French. The Christian 
religion was abolished ; the churches closed ; a goddess of 
Reason set up in Notre Dame ; and a reign of terror esta- 
blished, under which the knife of the guillotine was inces- 
santly at w^ork. Retribution, however, overtook the agents 
of impiety and murder, and all the revolutionary leaders 
perished in turn on the scaffold or by other violence. It 
is estimated that during the first two years of the revolu- 
tion nearly a million human victims were sacrificed in 
France. 

In 1793, an English army under the Duke of York was 
sent to co-operate with the Austrians in Belgium, but it 
met with little success. In the south of France, Toulon 
proclaimed for the royalists, and surrendered to a British 
fleet under Lord Hood. The town was attacked by 40,000 
republicans, among whom was a young artillery officer, 
Napoleon Bonaparte, a native of Corsica, whose military 
genius first displayed itself on that occasion. Hood was 
compelled to leave Toulon, taking with him 15,000 
refugees. 

The year 1794 saw England unsuccessful on land, but 
triumphant at sea. The allies were driven out of Flanders, 
and forced to make a disastrous retreat into Hanover, 
leaving the French masters of Holland. The English army 
returned home in the following spring. On the other 
hand. Lord Hood took Corsica, where Horatio Nelson 
distinguished himself; and Admiral Howe defeated the 
Brest fleet off Ushant, capturing twelve ships of the line. 
In 1795, Prussia and Spain withdrew from the alliance 



GEOEGE III. 449 

against France, and Holland threw in her fortunes with 
the French republic. England declared war against the 
latter country, and captured the Dutch colony of the Cape 
of Good Hope, and other possessions in the East and West 
Indies. A new government, called the Directory^ was set 
up in France, but the change so displeased the mob of 
Paris, that the Directory was only saved by Bonaparte, who 
vscattered the insurgent rabble in front of the Tuileries by 
a volley of grape-shot. 

The foUoAving year was distinguished by Napoleon's 
victorious campaign in Northern Italy, where the power of 
Austria and her allies was completely broken. Spain, too, 
joined France and declared war against England. An 
effort on the part of the English Government to make 
peace failed through the high demands of the Directory. 
Schemes were then set on foot for the invasion of Britain. 
It was proposed to unite the fleets of Holland, France, and 
Spain, and sweep the English off the seas. The French, in 
their impetuosity, made a fruitless attempt to invade 
Ireland and Wales ; but a storm scattered the fleet destined 
for Ireland, and some old women, dressed up in red cloaks, 
frightened the French, who had landed in Pembrokeshire, 
into a surrender. 

The year 1797 opened in England with gloomy fore- 
bodings, which the brilliant victory of Admiral Jervis and 
Commodore Nelson over the Spanish fleet off Cape St. 
Vincent only partially dispelled. (Feb. 14.) The French 
were everywhere successful, and not a single European 
Power remained to withstand their ambition except 
England, which unfortunately was unable to present a 
strong and united front against the foe. Taxation was 
heavy and grievous, and the fear of invasion caused such 
a run upon the Bank of England, that cash payments were 
stopped. Republicanism, too, found many sympathisers 
amongst an over-taxed and hungry people, and Ireland 
especially was a source of great disquietude to the Govern- 
ment. The Habeas Corpus Act was suspended, a strict 
watch was kept upon aU suspected persons, and the laws 
enforced with vigour and rigour. Disaffection spread to 



450 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

the navy, upon which the safety of the country depended. 
The joy of the victory of St. Vincent had scarcely passed 
away, when a serious mutiny broke out in the Channel 
fleet at Spithead, and afterwards in the North fleet at the 
Nore. The mutineers complained of their low pay, un- 
equal share of prize-money, and severity of discipline. 
They moored the ships across the Thames to prevent traffic 
with the capital until their grievances were redressed, and 
at one time they talked of taking the fleet over to France. 
The mutiny w^as fortunately quelled, but the ringleaders, 
among whom was an intelligent sailor named Parker, 
suffered death. The disgrace of the mutiny was soon 
wiped out by Admiral Duncan's victory over the Dutch 
fleet off Camperdown. (Oct. 11.) 

In 1798, Napoleon sailed from Toulon with a great fleet 
and army, on his celebrated expedition to Egypt, with a 
view, as he afterwards said, ' to conquer the East, and take 
Europe in the rear.' Taking Malta on the way, he disem- 
barked at Alexandria, and defeated the famous Mameluke 
cavalry at the battle of the Pyramids. Admiral Nelson, 
who was sent with a fleet in pursuit, at length found the 
French moored in Aboukir Bay. The Battle of the Nile 
continued through the night, and ended in the 
1 "^ft' ^l^os* total destruction of the French fleet. Out 
of seventeen ships, only four escaped, and more 
than 5,000 men perished, including the French 
admiral, whose flag-ship, the ' Orient,' blew up in the 
midst of the fight. The English loss was under 1,000. 
For this brilliant victory. Nelson received a peerage and a 
handsome pension. The consequencies to the French army 
were serious, since they were now prisoners aniid the sands 
of Egypt. Several of the Powers of Europe, too, encouraged 
by the battle of the Nile, formed a second coalition against 
France. In this year, a formidable rebellion occurred in 
Ireland, which will be related by itself. 

Early in 1799, Napoleon led his troops into Syria, took 

Gaza and Jaffa, but was foiled^ in his attempt upon Acre, 

' chiefly by the bravery of Sir Sidney Smith and some 

British seamen. Keturning to Egypt, alarming news from 



GEOEGE III. 451 

France caused him to leave his army and hurry home 
The Russians had defeated the French in Italy, and the 
Directory, in consequence, had fallen into contempt. 
Napoleon's return changed the aspect of affairs. Through 
his influence the Directory was abolished, and three 
consuls established instead, of which he was first. A 
military expedition to Holland under the Duke of York 
failed, but Nelson helped to take Naples. 

The next year was a successful one for France. 
Napoleon, having crossed the Alps, reconquered 'Italy by 
the great victory of Marengo. (June 14, 1800.) Later 
on, the victory of Hohenlinden, in Bavaria, by another 
French general, led Austria to make peace. The only 
English success was the acquisition of Malta. But a new 
danger threatened England by the revival of the armed 
neutrality of Russia, Sweden, and Denmark. 

The year 1801, however, was favourable to English 
arms. A British army under General Abercromby landed 
in Egypt, and defeated the French at Alexandria, but the 
victors lost their brave commander. About the same time, 
Admiral Nelson sailed to the Baltic, destroyed the Danish 
fleet, bombarded Copenhagen, and forced the Danes to 
submit to an armistice. The northern league, thus 
crippled by Nelson's victory, was soon broken up by the 
assassination of the Czar Paul, whose successor adopted a 
different policy towards Britain. 

Towards the close of the year, negotiations for peace 
were carried on, which ended in the Treaty of ^.r 
Amiens. England agreed to restore all her - j.^^ ' 
colonial conquests, except Ceylon and Trinidad ; 
to give up Malta to the Knights of St. John, and 
Egypt to Turkey. France, however, retained Belgium, 
the left bank of the Rhine, Savoy, Geneva, and Nice, and 
agreed to withdraw from the Roman and Neapolitan terri- 
tories, «,nd to guarantee the integrity of Portugal. The 
peace of Amiens was evidently nothing but a hollow truce 
to enable Napoleon to mature his plans. 



452 HISTORY OF ENaLANB. 

The Irish Kebellion. Union of England and Ireland. 

On the accession of George III., the Irish Roman 
Catholics began to give signs of a movement which had for 
its object the Reform of their Parliament and the removal 
of oppressive laAvs. An organisation of ' Whiteboys,' so 
called from their dress, soon gave proof, by deeds of violence, 
that the Romanists would not tamely submit to be kept 
down any longer as an inferior race. During the war 
with the American colonies, they became bolder in their 
demands, and embodied themselves as volunteers to ensure 
the success of their hopes. While this movement was 
gathering strength in Ireland, the French Revolution broke 
out, and filled the Irish with the wildest enthusiasm. The 
Protestants of the north, and the Romanists of the west 
and south, forgot their religious differences, and banded 
themselves together in a society called the ' United Irish- 
men,' to separate Ireland from Great Britain, and establish 
an Irish republic. (1791.) The Government, alarmed at 
such a union, granted certain privileges to the Roman 
Catholics, and forbade the meetings of the new society. 
But there was already an active correspondence with the 
French republic ; secret societies spread throughout the 
island, and everything was prepared for a rising as soon as 
the French should cross the sea. In 1796, a formidable 
expedition under Hoche set out from Brest, but it was 
scattered by a storm. A second attempt in the following 
year on the part of the Dutch was foiled by Duncan's 
victory at Camperdown. 

The Irish, disappointed at not receiving foreign aid, 
resolved to trust to themselves, and fixed a day in the 

1 tyoe i^'^<^i^tb of May to raise the flag of revolt. But 
the Government, receiving information of the 

A.D. 

plot, seized the leaders, amon^ whom were Lord 
Edward Fitzgerald, the brother of the Duke of Ltinster, 
iind Robert Emmett. Fitzgerald was mortally wounded in 
the scuffle that attended his arrest. A rising then took 
place in several parts of the country, but it was only 
serious in the county of Wexford, where for two months it 



GEOEGE III. 453 

raged cruelly and fiercely. The rebels entrenched them- 
selves on Vinegar Hill, near Enniscorthy. There they 
were attacked by General Lake at the head of a large force, 
and, after maintaining their ground for an hour and a half, 
broke and fled in all directions. 

During the rebellion, great atrocities were committed 
on both sides. The rebels shut up about 200 prisoners, 
chiefly Protestants, during an attack upon New Ross, and 
set fire to the house and destroyed them all. In the camp 
on Vinegar Hill, Protestant prisoners from time to time 
underwent mock trial, and were butchered till the roll 
numbered about 400 victims. On the day before the 
battle of Vinegar Hill, ninety-seven prisoners were piked 
and thrown into the River Slaney. On the other hand, 
the ferocity of the rebels was equalled by the cruelty of 
the soldiers. Little mercy was shown to an insurgent. 
Floggings, half-hangings, and other tortures, more than 
avenged the atrocities of the rebel camp. 

Two months after the rebellion was over, a French force 
of 900 men, under Humbert, landed in Killala Bay, in 
Mayo. Pushing into the interior, he defeated General 
Lake at Castlebar, but in a few days he was surrounded 
near Longford and compelled to surrender. 

The Irish rebellion showed the necessity of a closer 
connection between England and Ireland, and it wag re- 
solved to unite the Parliaments of the two countries, as 
had been done in the case of Scotland in Anne's reign. 
The TTnion was unpopular in Ireland, but, after much 
debate, bribery, and pressure, a Bill to that effect 
was passed. Henceforth, Ireland was to be re- lom' 
presented in the Imperial Parliament by four 
lords spiritual, twenty-eight lords temporal, and 
one hundred commoners ; the Churches of the two countries 
were to be united in one Protestant Episcopal Church ; the 
two peoples were to enjoy the same trading privileges; and 
the laws remain as they were, unless changed by the Im- 
perial Parliament. The cross of St. Patrick was then 
combined with those of St. George and St. Andrew, and 
the ' Union Jack ' henceforth became the national flag of 



454 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. At 
the same time, the English sovereign dropped the title and 
arms of ' King of France.' 

William Pitt, son of the Earl of Chatham, had been at 
the head of the ministry for some time. Believing that 
the Union would prove a greater blessing to Ireland if the 
penal statutes against Eomanists were abolished, he strongly 
advised the king to consent to such a measure. The king, 
however, would not agree to this, and Pitt consequently 
resigned his office. 

Ireland was still discontented and rebellious, in spite of 
the Union. In 1803, an insurrection broke out in the 
streets of Dublin, but it was suppressed in a single night. 
Eobert Eramett, for his share in this attempt, suffered 
death. Throughout the remainder of the reign, the Irish 
people continued quiet, and began to reap, by increased 
trade and general prosperity, the benefits of the Act of 
Union. 

Second War with France. Battle of Trafalgar. 

Two months after the Treaty of Amiens, Napoleon was 
elected consul for life. His ambitious schemes becoming 
manifest, the British Government hesitated to restore 
Malta. Napoleon complained of the delay, and of the 
countenance given by England to French emigrants, and 
backed his remonstrances with great naval preparations. 
When his plans were ready, he declared war, and meanly 
seized about 10,000 English, who were then travelling in 
France, and kept most of them prisoners till the peace. 
(May 1803.) His troops immediately occupied Hanover, 
Bremen, and Hamburg, whilst the English fleets scoured 
the seas and recajDtured the colonial possessions of the 
enemy. But Napoleon's grand scheme was the invasion 
of England, and for this purpose he formed an immense 
camp at Boulogne, and collected a large flotilla of boats for 
the transport of his armies. He spent the year 1804, • 
duringwhich he was proclaimed Emperor of the French, 
in preparations for the daring undertaking. His plan was 



aEORGE III. 455 

to allure the English fleet from the Channel, and then, with 
the united navies of France and Spain, bear down all 
opposition. 

In England, every precaution was taken to defeat the 
invasion. Pitt resumed the post of Prime Minister ; 
300,000 volunteers were enrolled, and Nelson was 
despatched with a formidable fleet to watch and harass the 
enemy. By Pitt's skilful diplomacy, Russia, Austria, and 
Sweden allied themselves against France. The beginning 
of 1805 found Napoleon's plans ripe for execution. The 
Toulon fleet, under Yilleneuve, escaped the vigilance of 
Nelson, effected a junction with the Spanish navy off 
Cadiz, and sailed for the "West Indies, to allure the English 
from Europe. Off to the West went Nelson in hot pursuit, 
but no enemy could be seen. Villeneuve had returned to 
Europe, having succeeded in drawing his great adversary 
far out of the way, and the invasion seemed sure of suc- 
cess. To the west of Cape Finisterre, however, the French 
Admiral fell in with Sir Eobert Calder, who had been sent 
to watch for him. (July 22, 1805.) Calder immediately 
dashed at the combined fleets with his insignificant force, 
took two Spanish ships, and so crippled the enemy, that 
Villeneuve, instead of proceeding np the Channel to secure 
the safe passage of the troops to Britain, withdrew to 
Ferrol for repairs, and thence to Cadiz. This gave Nelson 
time to return, and defeated Napoleon's scheme. 

In October, Nelson, with twenty- seven sail of the line, 
encountered the combined fleets of France and /-, , oi 
Spain, numbering thirty-three ships, off Cape lonK* 
Trafalgar. Hoisting the thrilling signal, ^England 
expects every man will do his duty^ the English 
admiral bore down upon the enemy in two lines, having 
his ov/n flag-ship, the ' Victory,' in the van. In the terrible 
struggle that followed, his vessel became entangled in the 
rigging of the French ship ' Eedoubtable.' Marksmen 
placed aloft in the latter ship raked the ' Victory's ' deck 
with musket-shot, and a bullet struck Nelson on the left 
shoulder and lodged in his spine. Before he died, the 
shouts of victory fell on the brave seaman's ears, and he 



456 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

faltered out in triumph, * Now I a,m satisfied ; thank God, 
I have done my duty.' The victory indeed was most 
glorious and complete. The enemy lost nineteen ships 
and 20,000 prisoners. The French navy was destroyed, 
and British supremacy at sea remained without a rival. 
Nelson was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral with princely 
honours, amid the tears of the whoje nation. 

In the meanwhile, Napoleon marched his ' Grand Army' 
of invasion against Austria, forced the surrender of 30,000 
Austrians under Mack at Ulm (October 20), entered 
Vienna, and defeated the Austrians and Russians at 
Austerlitz, in Moravia, (December 2, 1805.) 

The successes of the French on land thoroughly broke 
the spirit of Pitt. Disappointed and worn out by care and 
toil, the great statesman died in January 1806, at the early 
age of forty-six. A few months after, he was followed to 
the grave by his great rival Fox. 

During this year. Napoleon's tide of success continued 
to flow. He made his brother Joseph King of Naples; 
another brother, Louis, King of Holland ; united the lesser 
States of Germany into a Confederation of the Rhine, under 
his protectorship ; and forced Francis of Austria to renounce 
the title of Emperor of Germany. Prussia, daring to take 
offence, was humbled in one day by the battle of Jena. 
England and Russia were the only two countries of Europe 
that retained their independence. Unable to reach with 
his armies the people whom he contemptuously called ' a 
nation of shopkeepers,' Napoleon attempted to destroy 
English commerce by issuing the famous Berlin Decrees, 
declaring the British Islands to be in a state of blockade, 
and commanding the ports of Europe to be closed against 
British vessels. England retaliated, forbidding any neutral 
Power to trade with France or her allies. 

In 1807, the French emperor marched against Russia. 
The indecisive battle of Eylau was followed by the decisive 
victory of Friedlanrl, and the Russian emperor, Alexander I., 
glad to make terms with the conqueror, concluded the Treaty 
of Tilsit, (July 7.) Half of the Prussian dominions were 
then formed into the kingdom of Westphalia, and given to 



GEOEGE III. 457 

Jerome, another brother of Napoleon. The British Go- 
vernment, seeing the whole of Europe at the feet of its 
enemy, and fearing a union of the northern navies, sent a 
powerful armament to demand the surrender of the Danish 
fleet until the close of the war. Denmark, being a neutral 
State, refused, but the English admiral forced compliance 
by bombarding Copenhagen. 

The ambitious Frenchman then turned his mind to the 
conquest of the Spanish peninsula. He first made a treaty 
with Spain to divide Portugal, and an army under Junot 
entered Lisbon ; but in the following year he displaced the 
Spanish king, and transferred his brother Joseph from 
Naples to Madrid. This act of aggression gave rise to the 
Peninsular war. 



The Peninsular War. 

The Spaniards rose in arms, and in a fortnight drove 
Joseph out of Madrid. In answer to their appeal for help, 
Sir Arthur Wellesley with 10,000 British troops landed at 
Mondego Bay, in Portugal, in August, and defeated the 
French atIloIica,and four days after gained another ^ ^^^ 
victory over Junot at Vimiera. As Sir Arthur 
was about to follow up his advantage, he was 
superseded by Sir Henry Burrard, who almost immediately 
gave way to Sir Henry Dalrymple. The latter made a 
shameful treaty with the enemy, called the Convention of 
Cintra, by which they were allowed to leave Portugal 
with all their arnas and stores. Dalrymple's foolish 
leniency cost him his command, which was then given to 
Sir John Moore. The new general, deceived by Spanish 
promises of support, marched into Spain as far as Sala- 
manca, but finding Madrid in the hands of the French, 
and learning that a large army under Soult was 
threateniDg his rear, he returned towards the ioaq' 
coast of Galicia, hotly pursued by the enemy. At 
Corunna he turned at bay, and beat back the 
legions of France ; but he lost his life in the battle. The 



458 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

troops then embarked in some transports, and left the 
French in possession of the town. 

The command of the British army again devolved upon 
Sir Arthur Wellesley. With 25,000 men he marched into 
Spain, and encountered king Joseph and Marshals 
IRHq' "V^icto^ ^^^ Jourdan at Talavera, where the 
' French lost nearly 10,000 men. For this victory 
he was made Viscount Wellington. The French, 
however, were too strong in his front, and he was compelled 
to retire to the frontiers of Portugal. Austria in the mean- 
time had risen against France, but at Wagram her power 
was again shattered, and Napoleon dictated his own terms 
of peace. While the French were advancing against 
Austria, a British expedition, consisting of 40,000 men, 
was sent under the Earl of Chatham, elder brother of 
Pitt, to seize Antwerp, and thus create a diversion in 
favour of our ally. Chatham, a man unequal to the occa- 
sion, wasted his time before Flushing, while the enemy 
made Antwerp impregnable. He then withdrew to the 
marshy island of Walcheren, at the mouth of the Scheldt, 
where pestilence made sad havoo among the troops, and, 
ere the recall of the expedition in December, one-half of 
the force v/as swept off by disease. 

The beginning of the year 1810 saw Napoleon the 
master of the continent of Europe. To perpetuate his 
dynasty, he divorced his wife Josephine and married Maria 
Louisa, daughter of Francis II. of Austria. His supremacy 
on the Continent enabled him to fill Spain with troops. 
Massena with 80,000 veterans advanced into 

1810 pQj,j^^^gai^ and forced Wellington to withdraw 

behind the ' lines ' of Torres Vedras, near Lisbon ; 

but, before entering these entrenchments, he inflicted a 

crushing defeat upon the French on the heights of 

Susaco. 

In the spring of 1811, the British army issued from 
Torres Vedras, and won victory after victory in splendid 
succession. General Graham defeated a superior French 
force under Victor at Barossa, near Cadiz, in March. Two 
monthslater, Wellington routed Massena at Fuentes d'Onoro, 



GEORGE. III. 459 

and a few days after, General Beresford, while besieging 
tlie fortress of Badajoz, defeated Soult at Albuera. - ..- - 
This last battle was the most bloody in the whole 
war. Though the struggle lasted only four hours, 
nearly 16,000 men were slain ; the loss on both sides being 
about equal. Beresford, however, was obliged to relinquish 
the siege. In the East, Batavia, the capital of the Dutch 
colonies in Java, surrendered to a British force. 

The fifth campaign opened with the capture of the two 
border fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, but these 
important places cost thousands of lives. At Badajoz alone 
the British army lost 5,000 men in killed and wounded. 
Holding these fortresses as a base, Wellington marched 
forward into Spain, and utterly routed Marmont j i oo 
at Salamanca. The victorious army entered iqiq' 
Madrid in the following month, amid the re- ^^ 
joicings of the people, but the advance of the 
French in overwhelming numbers compelled the victor to 
fall back upon Ciudad Rodrigo. 

Meanwhile, Napoleon, uniting the forces of his empire 
with those of Austria and Germany, till his armament 
numbered about half a million of men, had set out to 
chastise Eussia for its opposition to his Berlin Decrees. 
Defeating the Russians at Smolensk and at Borodino, he 
reached Moscow. (September 15, 1812.) But Alexander 
refused to treat, and in a few days the flames of the city, 
fired by the Russians, drove the invader back. Pursued 
by the Cossacks, and exposed to hunger and the intense 
cold of a Russian winter, only a few of the invading army 
lived to reach the Niemen. This disastrous retreat, which 
cost Napoleon about 400,000 men, shook the French 
empire, and led to the Confederation which, in the next 
year, effected his overthrow. 

England's difficulties were increased this year by a war 
with the United States of America, which wiU be related 
separately. 

In 1813, while Germany, aided by Russia, Prussia, and 
Sweden, was rising to shake off the French yoke, Welling- 
ton for the last time advanced into Spain. At Vittoria 



460 HISTOEY .OF ENGLAND. 

he thoroughly scattered the French under King Jose23h 
and Marshal Jourdan, and captured all their 

June 21, 1 rrn • i^ 

Ifil*? artillery, stores, and army chest. The victor 

pushed on, defeated Soult in the Pyrenees, and, 

entering France, defeated him again at the Nivelle. 

In the meantime, the strong fortresses of St. Sebastian 

and Pampeluna had fallen into the hands of the English. 

Early next year Soult endeavoured to stop the English 
advance, but he was overthrown at Orthes. (February 27.) 
Two months later he made another stand at 
^Q--' Toulouse, but only to receive a most disastrous 
defeat. Ten days earlier. Napoleon, who had 
been routed at Leipsic in October of the previous 
year, was followed to Paris by an immense host of Eussians, 
Prussians, Swedes, and Germans, and compelled to abdi- 
cate the throne of France. The Bourbon dynasty was 
restored to the French throne ; the first treaty of Paris was 
signed in May ; Napoleon was sent to the island of Elba ; 
and a General Congress was appointed to meet at Vienna 
to settle the affairs of Europe. 

Wellington, for his victorious career in the Peninsula, 
was made a duke, received the thanks of Parliament, and 
a grant of 500,000/. 

War with the XTnited States of America (1812-14). 

The immediate cause of the quarrel with the United 
States was the claim of England to search American vessels 
for English seamen. But the Americans had for some 
time been very discontented with the rigorous manner in 
which the British Government had carried on the blockade 
of the ports of France and her allies in retaliation for the 
Berlin Decrees. The British right of search, therefore, 
was strongly resisted, and ended in a declaration of war by 
America. (June 18, 1812.) 

An attempt to invade Canada the same year failed 
through the loyalty of the colonists. At sea, however, the 
Americans, by the employment of heavily-armed cruisers, 
were at first successful, but England maintained her naval 



GEORGE III. 461 

supremacy, in the following summer, by the famous ' ocean 
duel' between the 'Shannon' and the American 'Chesa- 
peake.' In an engagement off Boston Harbour, the British 
flag waved over the 'Chesapeake,' after a combat of only 
•fifteen minutes. At this time the Americans had captured 
three British frigates and a number of brigs and sloops of 
war, while they had also seized hundreds of British mer- 
chantmen. In 1813, the Americans again invaded Canada 
and captured York, now Toronto. They also captured the 
entire British fleets on the Lakes Erie and Champlain. The 
battle of Chippewa was bravely fought and resulted in a 
drawn battle. A British fleet, having some of Wellington's 
veterans on board, came into Chesapeake Bay, and, the troops 
landing, marched on Washington City, which was abandoned 
by the inhabitants. The invaders burned the Capitol, the 
Congressional Library, the President's house, the Navy-yard, 
and many public buildings (August 15, 1814). An attack- on 
Fort McHenry, the defence of Baltimore, was repulsed, while 
the land force sent to cooperate fell back to their fleet after 
losing their commander, Gen. Eoss. An invasion of Louisi- 
ana resulted in the defeat of the British army, at New Or- 
leans, with a loss of 2,600 men (January 8, 1815). The 
Treaty of Ghent (December, 1814) closed the war without 
deciding the 'right of search' question, which, in truth, was 
not mentioned, but the ' right ' has not been exercised since. 

Napoleon's Escape from Elba. Battle of Waterloo. 

While the Congress of Vienna was busy settling the 
affairs of the Continent, news came that Napoleon had 
escaped from Elba, and was in Paris at the head of his 
veterans. The little Corsican landed on the coast of 
Provence, March 1, and was received everywhere with 
the wildest enthusiasm. Soldiers, officers, and marshals 
rallied round him, and in twenty days he was again 
emperor at the Tuileries. The Powers of Europe im- 
mediately combined to crush th^ disturber of the peace 
of the world. The British Parliament voted immense 
sums of money, and sent Wellington with an army 
2V 



462 HISTORY OF ENGLANR 

to Belgium, while the Prussians under Blucher were 
hastening to the Rhine, and the other Powers marshalling 
their legions. Napoleon's safety lay in immediate action, 
and his plan was clear. He hurried to the northern 
frontier to prevent the union of Wellington and Blucher, 
and thus crush them in detail. Sending Marshal Ney to 
attack the advanced British position at Quatre Bras, he 
himself with his main force fell upon the Prussians at 
Ligny, defeated them, and sent Grouchy in pursuit with 
35,000 men, while he himself turned to meet Wellington. 
Ney's attack at Quatre Bras, on the same day as the battle 
of Ligny, was gallantly repulsed ; but the defeat of the 
Prussians necessitated a retreat of the British forces to the 
village of Waterloo. Napoleon, however, had succeeded 
so far in his plans ; he had separated his two opponents, 
overthrown one, and now advanced to Waterloo to chastise 
the other. 

On June 17, Wellington took up his position on the 
ridge of Mont St. Jean^ in front of Waterloo. His army 
numbered about 72,000 men, of whom only 24,000 were 
British, and of these only about 15,000 were Peninsular 
veterans. The rest were Hanoverians, Dutch, and Belgians, 
many of whom were arrant cowards. Napoleon, Avith 
about 80,000 men, and artillery double that of his adver- 
sary, took up a position on the opposite ridge of La Belle 
Alliance. In a hollow between the two ridges lay the 
farmhouses of Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte, round 
which the battle raged most fiercely. On Sunday morn- 
ina:, June 18, the soldiers rose from their bivouacs in the 
midst of a drizzling rain, which had fallen continuously 
throughout the night ; and soon after ten o'clock the 

conflict began by a furious attack of the French 
^Qyfi' on Hougoumont. Napoleon's tactics were to 

break the ranks of the allied forces by a storm of 

A.D. . 

shot and shell, and then to hurl against them his 
splendid cavalry. Wellington's object was to maintain his 
ground until the Prussians should arrive ; and his iron will 
baffled all the efforts of his adversary to dislodge him. 
Again and again, grape, canister, anil cannon-balls tore 



GEORGE III. 463 

through the allied lines, and before the smoke had time to 
clear away, steel-clad cuirassiers, lancers, and hussars 
rushed down upon them. But the British infantry, drawn 
up in solid squares, received their onset at the point of the 
bayonet, and hurled them back, with many an empty 
saddle. Thus the struggle continued throughout the day, 
with terrible loss on both sides. 

Shortly after four in the afternoon, the sound of cannon 
boomed in the east, and Napoleon soon discovered that 
Blucher had outmarched Grouchy, and was hurrying to 
the battle-field. Knowing that there was not a moment 
to lose, he ordered Ney to lead the reserves, consisting of 
the Old Guard of France, the veterans of Austerlitz, Jena, 
and Wagram, and to make a final charge. The British 
Guards received the attack with a withering fire of 
musketry, and with a cheer rushed down the slope upon 
the wavering foe. A short hand-to-hand fight followed, 
and the French guards reeled back, broke, and fled, and 
Waterloo was won. Napoleon, seeing the flower of his 
army a disordered mass, exclaimed, ' Sauve qui pent ! ' and 
rode off the field. The Prussians, who had entered the 
battle just as the French Guards were reeling before the 
British infantry, took up the pursuit, and throughout that 
night many a soldier of France experienced the unspariag 
vengeance of the vanquished at Jena and Ligny. The 
French loss in the battle and pursuit amounted to about 
40,000 men, while the allies lost about 15,000. Napoleon, 
having narrowly escaped capture in the pursuit, reached 
Paris, abdicated in favour of his son, and fled to Eochefort, 
intending to embark for America. But Louis XYIII. re- 
entered Paris on July 8, and a week later the fallen 
emperor surrendered himself on the quarter-deck of the 
* Bellerophon,' in the roads of Aix, to the mercy of Britain. 
The allies resolved to send him where he could no longer 
disturb the peace of Europe. He was, therefore, conveyed 
to the island of St. Helena, where he died on May 5, 1821. 
In 1840, his remains were removed to France, and buried 
in the chapel of the Invalid es, Paris. 

By the second Treaty of Paris, which followed the 



464 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 

battle of Waterloo, it was agreed to reduce France to her 
limits of 1790 ; to make her pay a war indemnity of 
28,000,000/., and to maintain a large allied army in her 
frontier fortresses for five years. In the same year, the 
Congress of Vienna completed the task of regulating the 
affairs of Europe. 

These long wars with France left England burdened 
with an additional debt of 630,000,000/., making the total 
amount of the National Debt 868,000,000/. But a great 
deal of this money was spent in helping the various 
nationalities of Europe to fight their own battles. There 
was scarcely a single continental Power unaided by British 
gold. Many times during the war the English people 
experienced much distress, but the period immediately 
following the peace was far more trying. Trade was 
stagnant, wages were low, and bread dear — wheat rising 
to 1005. a quarter. Discontent accompanied poverty and 
misery, and furnished a splendid field for popular agitators. 
A cry for reform became general ; political clubs started 
into existence ; riotous assemblies were frequent in all the 
large towns ; and treasonable publications were widely cir- 
culated. The Government repressed all seditious movements 
with a high hand ; and at Manchester, in 1819, a political 
meeting was dispersed by the military. In this affair, 
long remembered as the 'Peterloo massacre,' several 
agitators lost their lives, and hundreds were wounded. 



Affairs in India. Warren Hastings. 

After the destruction of the French power in the Carnatic 
by the capture of Pondicherry, the affairs of the East India 
Company continued to prosper, in spite of many serious 
disputes with the native princes. Meer Cossim, the Nabob 
of Bengal, having quarrelled with the Company's officials, 
massacred all the English at Patna, and then marched with 
a large army to drive the British out of the province. 
Major Munro, at the head of a small force, met him at 
Buxar, and won a splendid victory. (1764.) But these 



GEOKaE III. 465 

quarrels considerably interfered with trade, and were, con- 
sequently, displeasing to the directors of the Company in 
England. They therefore requested Lord Clive to return 
to Bengal to put matters on a peaceful footing. Soon 
after his arrival, he concluded a treaty at Allahabad with 
the Mogul, by which the provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and 
Orissa were to be entirely -under the rule of the Company, 
on condition of granting the Nabob a handsome pension. 
(1765.) Clive remained in India for eighteen months, 
working vigorously to establish English interests on a 
durable basis. He returned home a wealthy man, but he 
was exposed to much persecution from those whom his 
firm government had offended, and he died at last by his 
own hand. (1774.) 

Though peace had been established in Bengal, the state 
of Madras was not so fortunate. A quarrel with Hyder 
Ali, the Eajah of Mysore, led to a war of two years' dura- 
tion, which quite exhausted the Company's revenue. ^ 
(1769). The proprietors in England raised such an out- 
cry at the loss of their dividends, that the king's govern- 
ment passed an Act in 1773 for the better regulation of 
Indian affairs. It was resolved to establish at Calcutta a 
governor-general, with a Coimcil, to be supreme over all 
the British possessions in India. Warren Hastings, 
who had entered the Company's service as a clerk in 
1750, was the first to hold this important post. (1773.) 
The members of the Council of four, established to aid 
the governor-general, were appointed by the crown, and, 
unfortunately for British id terests, three persons having 
personal and political prejudices against Hastings were 
placed on the Council. The supreme government was 
thus divided against itself, much to the injury of the Com- 
pany's service. 

Hastings entered upon office at a time when the treasury 
of the Company was almost empty. His first measures 
were directed to fill the exchequer, in accordance with 
orders from home, and in doing this his zeal overran his 
discretion, and exposed him to the attacks of his personal 
enemies. He assisted the Nabob of Oude to subjugate the 



466 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

Rohillas, on condition of receiving a large grant of money 
and other advantages ; but thongh the treasury was thu3 
replenished, the method employed raised up many enemies 
to British rule. The warlike Mahrattas of Central India 
took offence at the attack upon the Eohillas, and united 
with Hyder Ali of Mysore to expel the English from 
Madras, just at a time when a war with France enabled a 
hostile French fleet to appear in the Indian seas. (1780.) 
The British empire in Southern India was saved from ruin 
only by the vigour of Hastings, who sent a force under Sir 
Eyre Coote from Bengal to the south, and at the same time 
used all his skill successfully to break up the native alliance. 
Hyder, worsted in every encounter with Coote, suddenly 
died, and was succeeded by his son, Tippoo Saib, under 
whom the war continued till 1784, when a peace was con- 
cluded advantageous to the English. During these wars, 
Hastings committed those acts of spoliation to fill his ex- 
hausted treasury which excited so much indignation against 
his government. He wrung a heavy tribute irom the 
Eajah of Benares, who was under British protection ; and 
meeting with some opposition on a renewal of the extor- 
tion, he deposed the rajah, and seized his treasury. He 
also connived at the plunder of the Begums or princesses 
of Oude. The excuse for these acts was, that money was 
wanted to carry on the war in the south, else India would 
have been lost. 

Hastings returned to England, after holding the office of 
governor-general for thirteen .years. He was impeached 
before the House of Lords on charges of cruelty and op- 
pression to the natives of India. The trial commenced in 
1788, and went on at intervals till 1795. Hastings was 
acquitted, but the trial left him almost penniless. He 
spent the rest of his life in retirement, on a pension of 
4,000/. granted by the East India Company. 

Lord Cornwallis was next sent out from England as 
governor-general, with strict injunctions to avoid war. 
(1786.) Three years afterwards, hostilities commenced 
with Tippoo Saib, who gladly made peace in 1792, and 
ceded to the English nearly half his dominions. During 



GEORGE III. 467 

the war of the French Eevolution, France did her best to 
work mischief in India. Tippoo Saib, lending himself to 
French intrigues, again took up arms during the govern- 
ment of the Marquis of Wellesley. The war ended in the 
capture of Seringapatam, the death of Tippoo, and the 
addition of 20,000 square miles to the British empire. 
(1799). Colonel Wellesley (Duke of Welhngton) took 
part in the war with Tippoo. Three years afterwards, 
the Mahrattas combined to make themselves masters of 
India. General Lake defeated one chief under the walls of 
Delhi, and liberated the Mogul ; while General Wellesley 
routed another in the great battle of Assaye. (1803.) 
The Mahrattas submitted in 1805 ; and from this time the 
Mogul became a pensioner of the East India Company, 
while Delhi, Agra, and other provinces, both in the north 
and south, were added to our Indian empire. Peace re- 
mained undisturbed till 1814, when the Ghoorkas of 
Nepaul began to harass the northern borders. Their 
depredations, however, cost them a loss of territory 12,000 
square miles in extent. In 1817, the Mahrattas and 
Pindarees, again becoming insolent and troublesome, were 
deprived of 60,000 square miles of territory. 

Eegency of the Prince of Wales. Death and 
Character of the King. 

In the year 1810, the king's mind, long prone to 
insanity, gave way ; and this terrible affliction was further 
aggravated by total blindness and partial deafness. The 
appointment of a regent was therefore necessary. This 
office naturally devolved upon the Prince of Wales, who, 
with the full prerogative of majesty, entered upon the 
regency February 5, 1811. The old king spent the re- 
mainder of his life in Windsor Castle, where he passed his 
time chiefly in roving from room to room, occasionally 
stopping to play a few bars of music on the pianos and 
harpsichords placed in his apartments. In all his affliction, 
his piety never forsook him j and it was most afEScting to 



468 HISTOEY OF ENGLA:N^D. 

hear him pray and talk of holy things under the impression 
that he was holding converse with angels. 

The latter years of the reign brought many sorrows 
upon the royal family, in addition to the king's illness. 
The death of the Princess Charlotte, only child of the 
prince regent, threw the whole nation into mourning. 
(November 6, 1817.) In the previous year, she had 
married Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, afterwards King 
of the Belgians, and her early death in childbirth was 
everywhere lamented. A twelvemonth later, the good 
Queen Charlotte died. It is said that she had been in the 
habit of spending 5,000Z. annually in works of benevolence, 
and especially in encouraging such female authors as Mrs. 
Trimmer and Hannah More. The mourning for the queen 
had scarcely been removed, when her son, the Duke of 
Kent, father of our present sovereign, died. In less than a 
week, his father, George III., expired at the age of eighty- 
two, having occupied the throne for sixty years. (Jan. 29, 
1820). His reign was the longest in English history. He 
had fifteen children, of whom six were daughters. The 
four eldest sons were the Prince Eegent, Frederick Duke 
of York, William Duke of Clarence, and Edward Duke of 
Kent. 

George III. was by far the best of the Georges. He 
was a man of ordinary understanding, but endowed with 
more than an average share of tact and skill in managing 
men and things. He was actuated by a high sense of 
duty, and was firm, even to obstinacy, in the maintenance 
of Avhat seemed right. His example as a sincere and 
humble Christian was a blessing to the country. His 
prayer-book and bible bear marks of his simple, earnest 
piety. In later years, he loved to retire from the turmoil of 
town-life to the quiet haunts of "Windsor, where his affable 
manners and homely habits obtained for him the name of 
* Farmer George.' 



GEORGE III. 469 



Miscellaneous Facts. 



In 1780, London was disturbed for many days by the 
Gordon Kiots. Two years previously, certain penal laws 
against Eoman Catholics had been repealed. This measure 
caused much excitement in the country, and in London a 
huge multitude, numbering 60,000 persons, marched to 
Palace Yard, under the guidance of Lord George Gordon, 
to petition Parliament to repeal its late act of leniency to 
Romanists. The rejection of the petition was the signal 
for the mob to break out into open violence. For five 
days a reign of terror kept the capital in uproar and con- 
fusion. Eoman Catholic chapels were destroyed ; Newgate 
and other prisons were stormed and set on fii-e ; and pillage 
and destruction threatened the whole city. The mob even 
dared to withstand the military sent out to suppress the 
riots, and only withdrew after leaving more than 400 of 
their number dead or wounded in the streets. Twenty- 
one of the ringleaders were hanged ; but Gordon received 
an acquittal, chiefly through the able defence of his counsel, 
Erskine. 

In August 1816, a British fleet under Lord Exmouth 
was sent to Algiers to demand the surrender of all Chris- 
tians whom the Algerines had seized and treated as slaves. 
The Dey having refused, and also insulted the British 
consul, the fleet bombarded the town for six hours. The 
bombardment forced the Dey to liberate nearly 1,100 
Christian slaves, and laid the pirate-nest in ruins. 

The right of publishing the debates in the Houses of 
Parliament was obtained in the early part of the reign. 
Woodfall, the printer of the ' Public Advertiser,' took a 
leading part in demanding this right. His paper is famous 
for the publication of a series of political letters, known as 
the Letters of Junius, written by some unknown hand ; 
but the author is now generally believed to have been 
Sir Philip Francis. 

In the spring of 1812, Mr. Perceval, the Prime Minister, 



470 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 

was shot in the lobby of the House of Commons by a 
merchant whose business had been ruined by the war. 

An agitation against the African slave trade com- 
menced in this reign. Mr. Wilberforce, a member of the 
House of Commons, took a leading part in the struggle, 
and succeeded in obtaining an Act to suppress the traffic, 
but his efforts to obtain the freedom of slaves in the 
colonies failed. 

In 1781, Robert Raikes, a printer of Gloucester, opened 
the first Sunday-school. About the same time the philan- 
thropist John Howard made a tour through Europe to 
amend the condition of prisons and prisoners. His work 
of mercy was brought to a sudden close at Cherson, in 
Russia, where he died of fever. (1790.) Popular educa- 
tion received a great impetus from the establishment of the 
National School Society and the British and Foreign 
School Society in 1811. The Religious Tract Society, 
Church Missionary Society, and Bible Society, all founded 
in this reign, furthered the cause of religious education. 

In 1785, the London ' Times,' then called the * Daily 
Universal Register,' was established. Among the in- 
ventions, discoveries, and improvements of the reign may 
be mentioned : the first improvement in the steam-engine, 
by Watt (1765); the spinning-jenny invented by Har- 
greaves, and the spinning-frame by Arkwright (1767); 
Botany' Bay discovered by Captain Cook (1770); the 
mnle-jenny invented by Crompton (1775); the Sandwich 
Islands discovered by Cook (1778) ; mail-coaches 
began to run (1784) ; the power-loom invented by 
Cartwright, and steam first applied to cotton-spinning 
(1785) ; coal-gas first used for lighting (1792) ; vaccina- 
tion introduced by Dr. Jenner (1796) ; a steam-boat tried 
upon the Clyde (1802) ; a locomotive steam-engine first 
used on the railroad at Merthyr Tydvil (1804) ; London 
streets first lighted with gas (1807); a steam-boat began 
to ply on the Clyde (1812) ; the first steam-boat appeared 
on the Thames (1815) ; the Atlantic first crossed by a 
steamer (1816). 



GEORGE III. • 471 

LEADING AUTHORS UNDER GEORGE III. 
I. POETS. 

OLIVER GOLDSMITH (1728-1774), born in Ireland : author of 
the ' Traveller,' * The Deserted Village,' and several prose' 
works. 

WILLIAM COWPER (1731-1800), sometimes mentally deranged : 
author of the 'Task,' 'John Gilpin,' and a 'Translation of 
Homer.' 

ROBERT BURNS (1759-1796), an Ayrshire farmer, the national 
poet of Scotland : famed for his lyric poems ; his genius marred 
by intemperate habits. 

HENRY KIRKE WHITE (1785-1806), born at Nottingham: 
died at an early age. 

PERCY B. SHELLEY (1792-1822): author of 'Queen Mab,' 

* Eevolt of Islam,' &c. 

II. PEOSE WRITERS. 

DAVID HUME (1711-1776), a Scotchman: author of ' History 
of England,' * A Treatise on Human Nature,' and ' Essays.' 

SIR WILLIAM BLACKSTONE (1723-1780), an eminent lawyer 
and judge : author of ' Commentaries on the Laws of Eng- 
land.' 

SAMUEL JOHNSON (1709-1784), a native of Lichfield: chief 
works, ' The Lives of the Poets,' ' Easselas,' and an * English 
Dictionary.' 

ADAM SMITH (1723-1790), a Scotchman: Professor of Logic 
in Glasgow University ; chief work, ' The Wealth of Nations,' 
a standard text-book of political economy. 

WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1721-1793), a Scotch divine: chief 
works, ' History of Scotland,' ' History of Charles V.' and 
' History of America.* 

EDWARD GIBBON (1737-1794), born in Surrey: chief work, 

* The Decline and Fall of the Eoman Empire.' 

EDMUND BURKE (1728-1797), a native of Dublin; an orator 
and statesman : author of an * Essay on the Sublime and 
Beautiful ' and ' Eeflections on the French Eevolution.' 



472 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

HUGH BLAIR (1718-1800), a Scotch d-ivine: author of • Ser- 
mons ' and ' Lectures on Belles-Lettres,' 

WILLIAM PALEY (1743-1805), Archdeacon of Carlisle : author 
of the ' Evidences of Christianity,' • Natural Theology,' &c. 



LEADING ARTISTS. 

THOMAS GAINSBOROUGH (1727-1788), born in Suffolk: a 
famous landscape and portrait painter. 

SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS (1723-1792), born in Devon: Presi- 
dent of the Eoyal Academy ; a famous portrait painter, 

BENJAMIN WEST (1738-1820), bom in America: President 
of the Eoyal Academy ; a distinguished historical painter. 



DAVID GARRICK (1716-1779), the most celebiated actor of his 
day. 

LEADING INVENTORS. 

JAMES BRINDLEY (1716-1772), a native of Derbyshire: en- 
gineer employed by the Duke of Bridgewater to make a canal 
from Worsley to Manchester. 

SIR RICHARD ARKWRIGHT (1732-1792), born at Preston: 
originally a hair-dresser ; invented the spinning-frame for use 
in cotton mills ; reputed the founder of the cotton manufac- 
ture. 

JOSIAH WEDGEWOOD (1730-1795): improved the porcelain 
manufacture ; invented the ' Queen's ware.' 

JAMES WATT (1736-1819), a Scotchman: invented the double- 
acting condensing steam-engine. 

JOHN RENNIE (1761-1821), a famous engineer: constructed 
the Aberdeen canal ; designed the East and West India Docks, 
London, and built Waterloo Bridge over the Thames. 



GEOEGE IV. 473 



GEORGE IV. 
Born 1762 A.D. Eegan to Beign 1820 A.D. Died 1830 A.D. 



The Cato Street Conspiracy. 
Queen Caroline. 
Foreign Affairs. 
The Holy Alliance. 



Battle of Navarino. 
Agitation in Ireland. 
Eoman Catholic Eelief Bill. 
Death of the King. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



The Cato Street Conspiracy. Queen Caroline. 

George IV., eldest son of the late king, ascended the 
throne at the age of fifty-eight, after having discharged for 
nine years, as prince regent, all the duties of sovereignty. 
The latter years of the regency was a period of great dis- 
tress and much discontent in the nation. The long wars 
had impoverished the country, and made taxation a very 
heavy burden. The peace of 1815 was followed by stag- 
nation of trade and unfavourable harvests, and distress, in 
consequence, became very general. The Avorking-classes 
gave vent to their discontent by loud demands for a change 
in the government of the country, and in many places they 
broke out into serious riots. Disaffection continued to 
spread, in spite of the vigorous action of the government • 
and at length, about the close of the reign of George III., 
a seditious profligate, named Thistlewood, organised a gang 
of associates to murder the cabinet ministers while at dinner 
with Lord HarroAvby, burst open the prisons, set fire to 
London, and achieve a revolution. The plot was ripe 
for execution a few days after the accession of the prince 
regent. On the very evening of the day fixed for the 
crime, the conspirators were suddenly surprised by the 
police in a hay-loft in Cato Street, near the Edgware 
Road, where they were in the habit of assembling. Thistle- 



474 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

wood and four of his accomplices in the Cato Street CoH" 
spiracy, as the plot was called, suffered the extreme 
penalty of the law, and the rest of the band were trans- 
ported. (May 1, 1820.) 

The excitement caused by the discovery of Thistle wood's 
conspiracy was soon forgotten in the deep interest taken by 
the public in the king's conduct towards his wife, Queen 
Caroline. George lY. had married the daughter of the 
Duke of Brunswick in 1795, but, from the first, the 
union proved a most unhappy one, and, after the birth of 
the Princess Charlotte, a separation took place. For several 
years the Princess of Wales lived a secluded life at Black- 
heath, but in 1815 she retired to Italy, where she conducted 
herself so imprudently as to give rise to many grave 
charges against her character. On her husband's accession, 
she resolved to return to England to claim her rights as 
queen. The king did his best to persuade her to remain 
abroad ; 50,000Z. a year should be paid to her if she would 
not return. The bribe was indignantly rejected, and the 
queen landed at Dover amidst the rejoicings of multitudes 
assembled to welcome her. (June 5, 1820.) The popu- 
lace had little respect for a king whose whole life had been 
spent in profligate pleasures, and, though his wife had 
many faults, they were glad to make her return a fitting 
opportunity of showing their dislike to him. To the popu- 
lar mind she was a woman deeply injured by a selfish 
husband, and her progress to London was one continued 
ovation. Her return and hearty reception so increased 
lier husband's anger that he instructed his ministers to 
take proceedings against her with a view of obtaining a 
divorce. On July 6, 1820, Lord Liverpool, the premier, 
introduced into the House of Lords a ' Bill of Pains and 
Penalties,' charging her with unfaithfulness to the king 
during her residence in Italy. She was ably defended by 
Brougham, Denman, Williams, and Lushington, and, 
though the bill was carried in the Lords by a majority of 
nine, the ministry, feeling the hopelessness of passing it in 
the Commons, and intimidated by the excitement of the 
people, abandoned the measure. 



GEOEGE IV. 475 

Next year, Caroline demanded to "be crowned with her 
husband, and on the coronation day she attempted to force 
her way into Westminster Abbey, but was repulsed by the 
guards. (July 19, 1821.) This last indignity thoroughly 
broke her spirit, and nineteen days later she was a corpse. 
By her will, she ordered that her body should be taken to 
Brunswick for burial, and that her coffin should bear the 
inscription, ' Here lies Caroline of Brunswick, the injured 
Queen of England.' The ministry intended that the funeral 
procession, on its way to Harwich, should avoid the princi- 
pal streets of London ; but the people resolved that it should 
march through the City, and receive all the honour that it 
was in their power to bestow. At Kensington they blocked 
up the way, forced the cortege to go through Hyde Park, 
and, after a serious conflict with the soldiers, compelled it 
to take the route of some of the chief thoroughfares. 

Whilst London was thus the scene of confusion and 
riot, George was seeking the popularity denied him at 
home in Ireland, where, as the first British king who had 
visited the island in peace, he was received with acclama- 
tion. After spending a pleasant month in Ireland, he went 
to Hanover, and was again crowned amidst public re- 
joicings and festivity. In the following summer, he spent 
a fortnight in Scotland, being the first king since Charles 11. 
who had paid a visit to that country. While enjoying 
the hearty welcome of his Scotch subjects, he received 
the news that one of his chief ministers, the Marquis of 
Londonderry (Lord Castlereagh) had committed suicide. 
This statesman was succeeded in the ministry by Mr. 
George Canning, as Foreign Secretary. 

Foreign Affairs. The Holy Alliance. Battle of 
Navarino. 

Though peace had been restored on the Continent, the 
principles of the French Revolution continued to spread 
amongst the various peoples, and caused much uneasiness 
to the ruling powers. After the battle of Waterloo, Austria, 
Eussia, and Prussia entered into a Holy Alliance, by which 



476 HISTORY OE ENGLAND. 

they solemnly declared tlieir intention to carry on the affairs 
of State, both foreign and domestic, on the principles of 
Christianity. France also joined the alliance ; but England, 
suspecting that its object was the maintenance of despotic 
government, kept aloof. Mr. Canning bent all the powers 
of his great mind to counteract the projects of the Holy 
Alliance, and to maintain a policy of non-interference in the 
internal affairs of foreign States. 

In the East, the aggressions of the Burmese upon the 
frontiers of Bengal provoked the British Government to 
declare war against them. Hostilities commenced early in 
1824, and were so successfully conducted by our country- 
men that in less than two years the Burmese gladly sued 
for peace, and, by treaty, surrendered to Britain portions 
of the provinces of Aracan, Tenasserim, &c., containing an 
area of 80,000 square miles, and renounced all claims upon 
Assam and its dependencies. (February 1826.) 

In 1821 the Greeks rose in revolt against the Turks, who 
had held the south-eastern part of Europe in tyrannous 
subjection for more than three centuries. The struggle of 
the Greeks for independence excited the greatest sympathy 
in England, and men and money were gladly raised to help 
the brave and hardy descendants of an admired ancient 
race. One of the most distinguished volunteers was Lord 
Byron, who placed his purse and pen at the disposal of 
Greece, and eventually died in her cause. For six years 
the struggle continued with the greatest barbarity on both 
sides. At length, in 1827, England, France, and Russia, 
signed a treaty in London to compel the Sultan to acknow- 
ledge the independence of Greece, and the combined fleets 
of the three countries, under Sir Edward Codrington, were 
sent to the Mediterranean to intimidate the Turks. The 
Sultan continued obstinate, and ordered up the Egyptian 
fleet of 90 sail, under Ibrahim Pasha, to reinforce his 
squadrons on the coast of the Morea. Ibrahim was inter- 
cepted by Codrington, but was allowed to join the Turkish 
fleet in Navarino Bay, on condition of remaining quiet till 
decisive orders came from Constantinople. The aUied 
fleets also entered the bay, to ensure a performance of 



aEOEaE IV. 477 

Ibrahim's promise, and with orders not to commence hos- 
tilities unless the Turks should attack first. As might 
have been expected, a collision soon occurred. The Turks, 
under some misapprehension, fired into an English boat, 
and killed some of the crew. The nearest ships of the 
allied squadron retaliated, and, in a very short time, every 
vessel was hotly engaged in a battle without plan or design. 
In about four hours, the Turkish and Egyptian 
fleets had disappeared ; the larger vessels were at ^^^' ^^» 
the bottom of the bay — the smaller ones had ^^^* 
taken refuge in the inner harbour. 

The destruction of the Turkish navy was regarded in 
England as an ' untoward event,' and ultimately led to the 
overthrow^ of the ministry. The battle of Navarino, how- 
ever, put an end to the war. Greece became an inde- 
pendent kingdom, and its crown was accepted by Prince 
Otho of Bavaria. 



Agitation in Ireland. Roman Catholic Helief Bill. 
Death of the King. 

The most important political events of this reign were the 
removal of those disabilities under which Dissenters, both 
Protestant and Eoman Catholic, had long laboured. In 
Ireland, the penal laws passed at the Revolution pressed 
so heavily upon the Roman Catholics that the demand for 
their repeal could no longer be safely disregarded by the 
government. Early in the reign, Daniel O'Connell, an 
Irish barrister of great eloquence, organised the Catholic 
Association for the express purpose of agitating the ques- 
tion of emancipation. The subject was frequently debated 
in the House of Commons, and motions in its favour were 
carried, but the House of Lords would not sanction the 
repeal of the penal laws. The agitation in Ireland increased 
to such an extent that civil war seemed imminent. In 
1828, Lord John Russell successfully carried a motion 
repealing the Test and Corporation Acts, passed under 
Charles II., and it was thought that this concession would 
allay the prevailing discontent. But the Romanists con- 



478 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

sidered the repeal of these laws more as a measure of 
justice to Protestant Dissenters than to themselves, and 
their clamours for the removal of their own disabilities 
became louder and more violent. In defiance of the law 
forbidding Eoman Catholics to sit in Parliament, Daniel 
O'Connell was elected member for the county of Clare, and 
it became evident that a crisis was at hand. A Tory 
government was then in power, of which the Duke of Wel- 
lington was Prime Minister, and Mr. Peel Home Secretary. 
As long as it was safe, the ministry stoutly withstood the 
demands of O'Connell and his party, and, though they 
were encouraged in their resistance by Protestant clubs 
in all parts of the country, they saw that further conces- 
sions must be made to save the empire from the havoc of 
rebellion and civil war. Accordingly, it was announced 
at the opening of the parliamentary session of 1829 that 
the government intended to bring forward a Roman Catho- 
lic Relief Bill. The announcement caused great excite- 
ment in the country ; Protestant meetings were held every- 
where to protest against the measure ; and the names of 
Wellington and Peel were denounced as traitors to their 
Church and king. Peel lost his seat for the University of 
Oxford, and the hero of Waterloo was forced by circum- 
stances to fight a duel with the Earl of Winchelsea, once 
one of his warmest supporters. Many of the Tories refused 
to follow their leaders, but by the help of the Whigs the 

Belief Bill passed the two Houses, and became 
April 13, ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^j^^ j^^^^ -g ^j^.^ j^ Roman 

j.o«&vr Catholics were emancipated from penal laws and 
' * placed on the same political footing as their fel- 
low Protestant subjects; but they Avere still disqualified 
from the offices of regent. Viceroy of Ireland, and Lord 
Chancellor, and from posts connected with the English 
Church and Universities. Lord Surrey, son of the Duke 
of Norfolk, elected for Horsham, was the first Roman 
Catholic to enter the House of Commons in accordance 
with the provisions of the Relief Bill. 

The king spent the latter years of his reign in the 
greatest seclusion at Windsor. His favourite drives were 



GEORGE IV. 479 

screened from the public gaze, and when he took exercise, 
outriders were sent in advance to see that the roads were 
clear of people. This love of retirement was due in a great 
degree to disease of the heart. He died at Windsor on 
June 26, 1830, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, and 
left the crown to his next surviving brother. 

George IV. is said to have possessed a mind of more 
than average ability. His well-shaped person was set off 
to the best advantage by a tasteful magnificence of dress, 
and his polished manners and courtly appearance obtained 
from his flatterers the title of the ' first gentleman in 
Europe.' But in morals he was as low as his father was 
high. 

Miscellaneous Facts. 

During this reign Captains Parry and Ross explored the 
Arctic Seas in search of a north-west passage. In 1822, 
Mechanics' Institutes were foimded by Dr. Birkbeck; 
and the first steamboat was seen on the Thames. In 
1824, the National Gallery was established. In 1825, the 
first steam voyage was made to India, and the first stone of 
the Thames Tunnel laid. In 1828, London University 
was opened. In 1829, a new Police Act was introduced by 
Sir Eobert Peel. In 1830, Omnibuses were introduced 
from France, and a part of York Minster burnt down. 



480 HISTORY OF ENGLAlilD. 



LEADING AUTHORS UNDER GEORGE IV. 

LORD BYRON (1788-1824), a great poet: lived a profligate 
life ; author of ' Childe Harold's Pilgrimage,' and many other 
poems. Died at Missolonghi, in Grreeee. 

DUGALD STEWART (1753-1828), Professor of Moral Philo- 
sophy in Edinburgh: chief works, 'Elements of the Philo- 
sophy of the Human Mind,' * Outlines of Moral Philosophy, 
* Philosophical Essays.' 



LEADING ARTISTS. 

JOHN ELAXMAN (1755-1826), a native of York : great sculp- 
tor ; chief works illustrative of ancient Greek and Latin 
authors. 

SIR THOMAS LAWRENCE (1769-1830), born in Bristol : a 
famous portrait painter; called the English Titian: became 
President of the Royal Academy. 



JOHN PHILIP KEMBLE (1757-1823), a distinguished trage- 
dian. 

LEADING INVENTORS, &c. 

SAMUEL CROMPTON (1753-1827), inventor of the spinning- 
frame called the ' Mule.' 

SIR WILLIAM CONGREVE (1772-1828), inventor of rockets 
and lucifer matches. 

SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL (1738-1822), a native of Hanover : 
at first a musician ; an improver of the telescope ; a great astro- 
nomer ; discovered the planet ' Uranus,' &e. 

SIR HUMPHREY DAVY (1778-1829), a native of Cornwall: 
apprenticed to a surgeon : invented the * Safety-lamp ; ' made 
many discoveries in chemistry and electricity; Professor of 
Chemistry in the Royal Institution of London ; author of 
' Chemical and Philosophical Researches.' 



WILLIAM IV. 481 



WILLIAM IV. 
Born 1765 A.D. Began to Eeign 1830 A.D. Died 1837 A.D. 



Parliamentary Keform. 
Acts of the Keformed Parlia- 
ment. 
Abolition of Slavery. 



Foreign Affairs. 

Death and Character of the 

King. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



Parliamentary Eeform. 

The Duke of Clarence, fourth son of George III., ascended 
the throne, with the title of William IV. He had entered 
the royal navy at the age of thirteen, and had seen some 
service under Admirals Eodney and Nelson, but the 
greater part of his life, subsequent to the French Revolu- 
tion, vras spent in privacy at Bushey Park. His frank 
sailor-like manners "won for him popularity, esteem, and 
the title of the * Sailor-king.' His wife, Adelaide of Saxe- 
Meiningen, was distinguished for her many virtues, and 
will be long remembered for her works of charity. 

At the time of William's accession, the question of a 
reform of the House of Commons occupied the public 
mind. For many years there had been a growing demand 
for a change in parliamentary representation. The distress 
which followed the long wars of George HI. was attributed 
by many persons to a bad system of government, and it 
was said that reform of the House of Commons was the 
only means of restoring prosperity to the country. A 
change was certainly needed; for many towns, such as 
Liverpool, Manchester, and Leeds, which contained a 
teeming population, were without representation at all, 
while many small and insignificant places returned to 
Parliament one or more members. One of these small 
boroughs, Old Sarum, had not a single house and yet it 



432 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

retained the right of sending two members to the House of 
Commons. The large centres of population, unrepresented 
in Parhament, could no longer suffer this state of things 
to continue, and, encouraged by the successful clamours 
of the Koman Catholics in the previous reign, they be- 
came loud in their demands for parliamentary reform. 
The disturbed state of the Continent greatly influ- 
enced this important question. William had scarcely 
ascended the throne, when a second revolution broke out 
in France ; and after three days' fighting in the streets of 
Paris, Charles X. fled for his life, and Louis Philippe, 
Duke of Orleans, was made 'King of the French.' The 
people of Belgium followed the example of their neighbours, 
and revolted from the rule of Holland. These revolutions, 
while they encouraged the English people upon the ques- 
tion of reform, strengthened the resolve of the Tory 
ministry to withstand all changes. But the new Parlia- 
ment which assembled soon after the king's accession was 
so opposed to the Tory policy, that the Duke of Welling- 
ton was compelled to make way for a Whig ministry under 
Earl Grey. On March 1, 1831, Lord John Kussell, then 
Paymaster of the Forces, introduced his Reform Bill. 
The two parties in the House of Commons were so evenly 
balanced, that another appeal was made to the country, and 
a new House was returned, containing a majority of mem- 
bers pledged to carry ' the Bill.' In the Commons, after 
desperate struggles, the measure was carried by a large 
majority, but it was thrown out in the Lords. The rejec- 
tion of the bill by the Upper House caused great excitement 
throughout the country. Serious riots broke out in many 
places. In London the houses of many of the nobility 
were the objects of popular vengeance, and the residence of 
the Duke of Wellington, especially, was often besieged by a 
furious mob. Nottingham, Derby, and Bristol, were the 
scenes of serious outrages. Nottingham Castle was burnt 
to the ground, and the riots in Bristol were only suppressed 
after much of the city had been destroyed, and more than a 
hundred persons had been cut down by the military. 

On the assembling of Parliament, the Reform Bill was 



WILLIAM IV. 483 

again introduced, and passed the Lower House ; but as the 
king refused to increase the number of Whig peers in the 
Lords, Earl Grey resigned office. An attempt to form a 
Tory ministry under the Duke of Wellington failed, and 
the Whigs again returned to power, amid the acclamations 
of the people. The members of the Upper House had then 
no alternative but to let the bill pass, and, by t » 
the absence of many of the Opposition peers, the .. «qp ' 
Government obtained a majority, and the Eeform 
Bill became law. 

The changes produced by this important measure were 
twofold: (1) the seats in Parliament were more justly 
distributed ; and (2) the franchise, or right of voting, was 
reduced. The ' pocket ' boroughs, such as Gratton and 
Old Saruni, amounting in all to fifty-six, were disfranchised, 
and thirty small towns, which returned two representatives 
each, were allowed to elect only one. The members thus 
gained were given to the counties and the manufacturing 
towns. The right of voting for boroughs was given to the 
tenants of houses worth lOZ. a year or upwards. In the 
counties all were entitled to vote who had freeholds of the 
value of forty shillings, or land worth lOZ. a yeai*, or who 
paid an annual rental of 50Z. Similar bills for Scotland 
and Ireland passed in the same year. Parliamentary re- 
presentation was, henceforth, conducted according to the 
provisions of the Reform Act, until the year 1868, when a 
more popular measure became law. 

Acts of the Reformed Parliament. Abolition of 
Slavery. 

The new Parliament assembled early in 1883, and pro- 
ceeded to pass very important measures. Of these, the 
most memorable was one abolishing negro slavery in all the 
British colonies and possessions. The merit of this work of 
Christian charity is mainly due to Mr. William Wilberforce, 
a merchant of Hull, and member for the county of York, who 
for years had devoted himself to the question of the eman- 
cipation of the slaves. The proposal was warmly debated 



484 niSTOKy OF ENGLAND. 

in Parliament, and stoutly opposed by persons interested in 

the traffic; but the determined efforts of Wilberforce, 

Brougham, Buxton, Clarkson, and a hosjb of others, suc- 

^ Qrtrt ceeded in putting an end to the trade in human 

:desh wherever the flag of England waved. The 

slaves, however, did not obtain their freedom all 

at once. It was enacted that children under six years of 

age should be declared free in the summer of 1834, but 

that others should serve an apprenticeship to their present 

owners for seven years, if field slaves, and for five, if 

domestics. For the 800,000 slaves who thus received their 

freedom, a compensation of 20,000,000/. was paid to their 

masters. Wilberforce, having converted the dream of his 

life into a reality, died in the same year. 

In the following year, the attention of the Government 
was drawn to Ireland, where O'Connell was agitating for 
the disestablishment of the Irish Church, and the repeal of 
the Union. The disorders that arose in consequence were 
met by a Coercion Bill, but the Act caused a split among 
the ministerial supporters. An attempt was also made on 
the part of the Government to remove some of the Irish 
grievances by abolishing ten bishoprics and re-arranging 
the revenues of the Church. The Cabinet could not agree 
upon the difficult question of appeasing Ireland, and Earl 
Grey was forced to resign office. His place as premier 
was filled by Lord Melbourne, who in the same year passed 
a very important measure improving the Poor Laws. The 
system of relief hitherto practised encouraged pauperism to 
such an extent that the poor-rate amounted to 7,000,000Z. 
The new Act forbade the relief of all able-bodied paupers 
in their own homes, and required all who wanted support 
to enter the workhouse and do a certain amount of work ■ 
for every meal. The Local Boards, too, were placed under 
the supervision of government. 

In the year 1835, the Municipal Act was passed, Avhich 

gave to the ratepayers of cities and boroughs the right of 

electing town- councillors, who were privileged to appoint 

from their number their own chief magistrate. 

Several important measures marked the year 1836. 



WILLIAM IV. 485 

The Tithe Commutation Act substituted for tithes a rent- 
charge, which was regulated by the average price of corn 
in the seven preceding years. Some of the English 
dioceses were re-arranged, and the bishoprics of Kipon and 
Manchester established. By other bills, marriages were 
allowed to be solemnised in Dissenting chapels, or con- 
tracted before a registrar appointed by the guardians of 
the poor; and a system of registration of births, marriages, 
and deaths was adopted. 

Foreign Affairs. Death and Character of the 
King. 

The foreign policy of England throughout this reign 
was a peaceful one. The revolt of Belgium from Holland 
was the only cause of interruption of friendly feelings with 
any foreign Power on the part of the British Government, 
The King of Holland, naturally loth to lose such a fine 
province, did his best to recover his authority, but the 
English and French, interfering on behalf of the Belgians, 
blockaded the Dutch ports, and forced the king to submit 
to the loss. Belgium became an independent kingdom, 
and its crown was given to Prince Leopold, the husband 
of the Princess Charlotte. (1832.) 

In 1835, English volunteers were allowed to take part 
in the civil war raging in Spain between Queen Isabella 
and her uncle, Don Carlos. General Evans took charge of 
a British legion in support of the queen, and for nearly two 
years experienced much hard fighting and privation, 

"William IV. died on June 20, 1837, in the seventy- 
second year of his age. He was a man of ordinary talent, 
business-like habits, and good common sense. His genial 
manners, warm heart, and simplicity of soul, recommended 
him to the goodwill of his subjects. By his wife, Queen 
Adelaide, he had two daughters, who died in infancy ; but 
by a previous marriage, considered illegal, he left a 
numerous family of illegitimate children, to whom he gave 
the name of Fitz- Clarence. 
22 



486 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



Miscellaneous Facts. 

In 1830, the first of those railways which now cover the 
face of the whole country was opened betAveen Liverpool 
and Manchester. The Duke of Wellington, then Prime 
Minister, graced the ceremony with his presence, but the 
rejoicings of the day were marred by a fatal accident to 
Mr. Huskisson, who was struck down by a passing engine, 
and so crushed that death ensued in a few hours. 

Towards the close of the year 1831, a dreadful pestilence, 
called the Cholera, which had first appeared in India in 
1817, and had been slowly travelling westwards, broke out 
in Sunderland. Its ravages were checked by the winter, 
but on the return of spring it committed sad havoc 
throughout the country, and swept away some 60,000 
persons. It disappeared from England about the close of 
the autumn of 1832. This dreaded scourge has visited our 
shores on several occasions since, but the progress of 
sanitary reform has considerably lessened its evils. 

In 1833, the first Quaker, Mr. Pease, was admitted to 
the House of Commons as member for South Durham. 
Durham University was also founded. In 1834, the 
Houses of Parliament were destroyed by fire ; and in the 
same year. South Australia was colonised. The British 
Association for the Advancement of Science held its first 
meeting at York in 1831. 



WILLIAM IV. 487 



LEADING AUTHORS UNDER WILLIAM IV. 

POETS. 

SIR WALTER SCOTT (1771-1832), a Scotch barrister: wrote 
' Marmion,' ' The Lay of the Last Minstrel,' ' The Lady of the 
Lake,' &c. ; author of the Waverley Noyels, and other prose 
writings. 

SAMUEL T. COLERIDGE (1772-1834), native of Devonshire : 
a poet of great originality and genius : author of ' The Ancient 
Mariner ;' ' Lady Christabel,' and several prose works. 

FELICIA HEMANS (1794-1835), a writer of lyric poems : chief 
works, * Songs of the Aflfections,' and ' Keeords of Woman.' 



PROSE WRITERS. 

ADAM CLARKE (1762-1832), a Wesleyan minister: author of 
a ' Commentary on the Bible.' 

JEREMY BENTHAM (1747-1832), a famous writer on legisla- 
tion and moral philosophy : author of * Introduction to the 
Principles of Morals and Legislation,' &c. 

CHARLES LAMB (1775-1834), a wit and essayist : wrote ' Essays 
ofElia.'&c. 

WILLIAM COBBETT (1762-1835), son of a yeoman: self- 
taught ; once a common soldier ; a political writer of some 
note; author of an * English Grrammar,' 'Advice to Young 
Men,' and many other works. 



MRS. SIDDONS (1755-1831) and EDMUND KEAN (1787- 
1833) were famous for their histrionic art. 



488 



HISTOKY OF ENGLAND, 



VICTOEIA. 
Born May 24, 1819 A.B. Began to Seign June 20, 1837 A.D. 



Eebellion in Canada. 
The Chartists. 
Troubles in Ireland. 
War in Syria. 
Wars with China. 
Indian Affairs. 
Afghan War. 
Ameers of Scinde. 
The Sikh Wars. 
War with Burmah. 



The Sepoy Mutiny. 
War with Eussia. 
Abyssinian War. 
Ministerial Changes and Mea- 
sures. 
Repeal of the Corn Laws. 
Second Reform Bill. 
Irish Church Bill. 
National Education. 
Miscellaneous Facts. 



Rebellion in Canada. The Chartists. 

Ireland. 



Troubles in 



Alexandrina Victoria, only daughter of Edward Duke of 
Kent, was immediately proclaimed queen on the death of 
her uncle, and on June 28 in the following year she was 
crowned at Westminster. As the Salic law, which forbade 
a female to occupy the throne, was in force in Hanover, the 
queen's accession severed that country from the British 
empire ; and Ernest Duke of Cumberland, brother of 
William IV., became its king. 

On February 10, 1840, Her Majesty was married to her 
cousin. Prince Albert, second sen of the Duke of Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha. Parliament voted him an annuity of 30,000/.; 
and the queen, some years later, conferred upon him the 
title of Prince Consort. 

Tlie beginning of the reign was marked by a rebellion 
in Canada. For several years there had been in that 
portion of our empire much dissatisfaction with English 
rule, which was greatly encouraged by numerous American 
sympathisers. As soon as the winter of 1837 had set in, 



VICTORIA. 489 

the Canadians rose in revolt, and made an unsuccessful 
attacic upon Toronto. Men and stores from the United 
States came to their assistance ; but in consequence of the 
president's proclamation forbidding American subjects to 
commit acts of war against Great Britain, the rebels lost 
much of the support upon which they had relied. The 
troops in the colony and the loyal subjects of the Upper 
Province were quite strong enough to meet the crisis, and 
the insurrection, deprived of foreign aid, was speedily sup- 
pressed. In the winter of the following year, a second 
rising took place in Lower Canada, but it v/as quickly put 
down. By judicious measures of reform, the Canadians 
became reconciled to the empire ; but to ensure the peace 
and security of the colony, the two provinces of Upper and 
Lower Canada were united into one. (February 10, 
1841.) 

About the same time, England was much disturbed by 
the Chartist movement. The Reform Bill of the previous 
reign did not satisfy those who had clamoured for radical 
and sweeping changes in the Constitution. Disappointed 
in their expectations, they took advantage of the discontent 
which followed the bad harvests of the first two years of 
the reign to agitate for a more radical reform. The sup- 
porters of the movement were called Chartists, because 
they embodied their demands in what they called a 
' People's Charter.' This document contained six points : 
1. Universal suffrage. 2. Vote hy Ballot. 3. Annual par- 
liaments. 4. Electoral districts. 5. The abolition of the 
property qualification for Members. 6. The payment of par- 
liamentary representatives. In 1838, the Chartists became so 
threatening and violent that the Government was compelled 
to put a stop to their torch -light meetings, and to take 
active measures against the most seditious leaders. In 
the following year a rising was attempted in Monmouthshire, 
and a fruitless attack was made upon Newport. The leaders 
of the riots — Frost, Williams, and Jones — were arrested and 
condemned to death ; but they were afterwards reprieved 
and transported for life. The energy of the Government 
thoroughly cowed the * physical-force Chartists,' and for 



490 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

several years they remained tolerably quiet. The move- 
ment, however, received an impetus from the French 
Eevolution of 1848, and, under the leadership of Feargus 
O'Connor, threatened again to cause the Government some 
trouble. On Kennington Common, 20,000 misguided men 
assembled for the purpose of walking in procession to 
Westminster to present a monster petition in favour of 
their claims. The Government appealed to the loyalty of 
the capital, and 200,000 citizens enrolled tliemselves as 
special constables for the preservation of order. The pro- 
cession, overawed by this display of loyalty, passed off 
without any disturbance ; and from that day Chartism 
never again showed its head. 

Meanwhile, the condition of Ireland Avas in a most un- 
satisfactory state. Every concession of the English Govern- 
ment failed to give peace to that unfortunate country. 
O'Connell's agitation for a repeal of the Union had re- 
ceived such support from the Eoman Catholic priesthood 
that the collections, or ' Eepeal Rent,' at the chapel doors, 
in the year 1843, amounted to 48,000Z. Monster meetings 
were held at Tara, the site of Ireland's ancient capital, and 
other places, where much sedition was spouted. The 
proposal to hold a gathering at Clontarf, a place famous in 
old Irish history for a victory over the Danes, led to the 
issue of a proclamation forbidding such assemblies, and on 
the day intended for the meeting, the lord-lieutenant sent 
soldiers to occupy the ground. On October 14, 1843, 
O'Connell and several other leaders were arrested on the 
charges of conspiracy and sedition. They were tried, 
convicted, and condemned to fines and imprisonment ; but 
an appeal being made to the House of Lords, the sentence 
was annulled on account of some informality. O'Connell, 
warned by his narrow escape, afterwards remained quiet. 
He died at Genoa, May 15, 1847, while on his way to Eome 
to ask the Pope's blessing. 

The more violent members of the Eepeal movement, 
scorning the inactivity of the great agitator, had formed 
themselves into the ' Young Ireland Party,' for the express 
purpose of severing the Union by force of arms. The failure 



VICTOEIA. 491 

of the potato crop in 1845, and the consequent famine, 
during which starvation and emigration reduced the popu- 
lation of the island to the extent of two millions, had in- 
-creased the imaginary grievances of the Irish people, and 
swelled the ranks of the disaffected, in spite of the generous 
sympathy and aid which England gave to Ireland in her 
distress. Treasonable newspapers, of which the most 
violent ■ was * The United Irishman,' edited by John 
Mitchell, excited the people to rebellion. At length, 
during the exciting year 1848, a feeble attempt at insur- 
rection was made in Tipperary, under Smith O'Brien, the 
member for Limerick. A few policemen sufficed to crush 
the attempted rising, and its valiant leader was arrested 
while skulking in a cabbage -garden. O'Brien and three 
others were condemned to death, but the sentence was 
changed to transportation for life. After a few years' 
exile, they were all pardoned or allowed to escape. 

Ireland then settled down in quietness for some years, 
and began to reap the blessings of peace in a rapid increase 
of prosperity. The hopes of the best friends of the country 
were, however, shattered in 1865 by the discovery of a 
conspiracy for the establishment of an Irish Republic. The 
movement had its origin in America among the Yankee- 
Irish, who, having become inured to bloodshed and dis- 
order in the civil war between the Northern and Southern 
States, and having lost their occupation on the return of 
peace, thought Ireland a fair field v/herein to put their 
military ruffianism to the test. The society thus organ- 
ised received the name of the Fenian Brotherhood, from a 
name borne in old times by some mysterious organisation 
of Irishmen. The vigorous action of the Government 
checked the designs of this mischievous society, and by 
suspending the Habeas Corpus Act, freed Ireland from the 
numerous fillibustering adventurers who were making a 
rich harvest in their game of rascality. Foiled across the 
Irish Channel, some English towns became the hot -beds of 
Fenian sedition, and the scenes of some of its violence. At 
Manchester, a prison-van, containing two or three Fenian 
leaders, was attacked in broad daylight by an armed body 



492 HISTOEY OF ENaLAND. 

of conspirators, and a policeman was shot. In London, a 
portion of the wall of Clerkenwell prison was blown down, 
by which many persons were killed or maimed for life. 

The British Government, wishing to give permanent- 
peace to Ireland, passed an Act, in 1869, for the dis- 
establishment of the Irish Church ; and, in the following 
year, endeavoured to make a better understanding between 
landlord and tenant by a Land Bill. Nothing, however, 
seems able to pacify that distracted country ; and, in spite 
of all the concessions of Government, the agitation for 
* Home Rule,' or repeal of the Union, is once more the 
order of the day. 



War in Syria. Wars with China. 

In 1840, England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, united 
to protect the Sultan of Turkey against his rebellious 
vassal Mehemet Ali, Viceroy of Egypt, whose army, under 
his son Ibrahim, had overrun Syria, and threatened the 
destruction of the Turkish empire. A British fleet, under 
Admiral Stopford and Commodore Napier, bombarded 
Beyrout, Sidon, and Acre, and compelled Ibrahim to with- 
draw from Syria. The Pacha, disappointed in not re- 
ceiving help from France, made peace with the Sultan, on 
condition that the right of ruling Egypt should be heredi- 
tary in his family. 

Meanwhile, a dispute had arisen with China about the 
trade in opium, an article which the Chinese authorities 
had prohibited to be imported, on account of its injurious 
effects. But British merchants continued to smuggle the 
drug into the country, in defiance of the prohibition, and 
provoked a quarrel which ended in war. In 1839, the 
Chinese Government ordered the destruction of more than 
20,000 chests of opium, imprisoned the British Commis- 
sioner, and threatened the expulsion of all English mer- 
chants. For these vigorous measures, the English Govern- 
ment demanded satisfaction, and, on its refusal, declared 
war. (1840.) A large military force from India, under 



VICTOEIA. 493 

Generals Pottinger and Goiigh, soon effected the reduction 
of the chief places near the coast ; and on the appearance of 
our army before the walls of Nankin, the Chinese signed a 
treaty of peace. (August, 1842.) They agreed to pay 
4,375,000/. for the expenses of the war, in addition to 
1,250,000/. paid for the confiscated opium ; to cede Hong 
Kong to the British ; and to open the ports of Canton, 
Amoy, Foo-choo, Ningpo, and Shanghae, to our mer- 
chants. 

In 1856, another war arose with China. Some Chinese 
soldiers boarded a ship called the ' Arrow,' sailing under 
British colours, seized a portion of the crew, and pulled 
down the English flag. Commissioner Yeh, of Canton, 
having refused to apologise for this outrage, hostilities 
commenced, and an united force of English and French 
captured the town. (1857.) In the following spring, an 
allied British and French fleet, having on board Lord 
Elgin, Her Majesty's Ambassador Extraordinary, sailed up 
the Peiho, en route to Pekin, but at Tien-Tsin the expe- 
dition was met by some Chinese commissioners, who con- 
cluded a treaty of peace favourable to our interests. 
(June 26, 1858.) By this it was agreed to open additional 
ports for commerce ; to tolerate Christianity throughout 
the empire ; to send a Chinese ambassador to London, and 
to receive a British minister at Pekin. Next summer, as 
the English envoy with a squadron was ascending the 
Peiho to ratify the treaty of peace at Pekin, the Chinese 
suddenly opened fire upon the ships, and drove them back 
with heavy loss. (1859.) This treacherous outrage was 
avenged in the following year by an Anglo-French expe- 
dition, which gallantly stormed the Taku forts at the 
mouth of the Peiho, and, after twice defeating the Tartar 
troops, scaled the walls of Pekin, and dictated terms of 
peace in the emperor's palace. (October 13, 1860.) An 
ample apology was made for the treacherous attack of the 
previous year, and the treaty of Tien-Tsin ratified. 



494 HISTOEY OE ENGLAND. 

Indian Affairs. 

Wars with the Afghans ; Ameers of Scinde ; the Sikhs ; 
B'iirmese. Sepoy Mutiny. 

In 1839, the English interfered in the affairs of Afghan- 
istan, and experienced one of the greatest disasters that 
ever befell their arms. The British Government, suspicious 
of the designs of Russia upon our Indian empire, was 
anxious to have on the throne of Afghanistan a ruler 
friendly to English interests. Dost Mahommed, who had 
usurped the Afghan throne, had lately shown himself so 
hostile that it was thought advisable to send a force to 
Cabul to depose him, and replace Shah-Soojah. The expe- 
dition having proved successful, a part of the army was 
withdrawn, while the rest remained to support the autho- 
rity of the English nominee. Everything seemed so quiet 
that the soldiers sent for their wives and children ; but 
in November, 1841, the Afghans, disliking the rule of 
foreign bayonets, rose up in arms, and completely hemmed 
in the British forces. Akbar Khan, son of Dost Mahommed, 
had already seized the Khyber Pass, through which lay the 
only road to Hindostan, and the English army was entirely 
at the mercy of its enemies. General Elphinstone, the 
British commander, agreed with Akbar to evacuate the 
country ; but the Afghans soon showed how little they 
cared for treaties by the murder of Sir William Mac- 
naughten and several officers whom they had invited to 
a conference. Elphinstone commenced the retreat on 
January 6, 1842. About 4,500 soldiers, and 12,000 
camp-followers, besides women and children, set out from 
Cabul to cross a rugged and mountainous country in the 
depth of an inclement winter, and in the face of a fierce 
and relentless foe. Jelalabad, the nearest place of refuge, 
lay ninety miles distant. On the first day's march the re- 
treating army could only advance five miles through the 
snow; and, beset on all sides by yelling Afghans, it had 
to bivouac for the night without shelter and almost with- 
out food. Before morning, many were found frozen to 



VICTORIA. 495 

death. Ere three days had passed, 3,000 perished of 
starvation or by the hands of their enemies. The married 
men and their wives surrendered to Akbar Khan ; the 
rest of the survivors pushed on in spite of all opposition, 
but each day their ranks decreased in number. On 
January 13, the garrison of Jelalabad saw a single man 
approaching their walls, mounted on a wretched little 
pony, and hanging exhausted upon its neck. He proved 
to be Dr. Brydon, the only one of the force which left 
Cabul a week before who had escaped to tell the tale. 

General Sale, the commander at Jelalabad, waited for 
the advance of General Pollock, who bravely fought his 
way through the Khyber Pass to avenge his slaughtered 
countrymen ; and combining their forces with those of 
General Nott, they advanced upon Cabul, and planted 
once more the British flag on the ramparts of the citv. 
Having rescued the prisoners, destroyed the fortifications, 
and thus restored English prestige, the army evacuated 
Afghanistan. (October 12, 1842.) Shah-Soojah fell by 
the hands of an assassin, and Dost Mahommed remounted 
the throne. A few years later, he made a friendly alliance 
with Britain. 

In the year lollowing the Afghan war, a dispute arose 
with the Ameers of Scinde, whose territory lay around the 
river Indus. Sir Charles Napier was sent with a small 
army of 2,500 men to overawe the Ameers, who had at- 
tacked the British residency at Hyderabad. At Meanee, 
he encountered a hostile force of 30,000 men, and inflicted 
upon them a severe defeat. Their capital, Hyderabad, 
then fell into his hands, and, after another victory near the 
walls of the city, Scinde was conquered and annexed to 
the British dominions. (1843.) 

On the north-east of Scinde lies the district of the 
Punjab, or country of the five rivers, inhabited by a war- 
like race of men called Sikhs. In December, 1845, they 
commenced an unprovoked war with the English, and, 
crossing the Sutlej, advanced to give battle to the British 
forces under Sir Hugh Gough and Sir Henry Hardinge, 
stationed at Moodkee. (December 18.) In this engage- 



498 HISTORY OE ENGLAND. 

ment, the Sikhs were severely beaten, and three days later 
they were again defeated by the same generals at Feroze- 
shah. Eetreating across the Sutlej, they were pursued by 
Sir Harry Smith, and worsted in a terrible conflict at 
Aliwal. (January 28, 1846.) The decisive victory of 
Sobraon, in the following month, opened up the way to 
Lahore, the capital of the Punjab, where the victors dic- 
tated terms of peace. 

In 1848, an outbreak at Mooltan, where two British 
officers were slain, renewed the war. Lord Gough, after 
an indecisive engagement at Ramnuggur, attacked a 
great Sikh host, strongly entrenched, at ChiUianwalla; 
but the battle was so indecisive that the victory was 
claimed by both sides. (January 13, 1849.) So terrible 
v/as the British loss on this occasion, that General Napier 
was hastily sent out from England to take the command. 
Before his arrival, Gough gained a decisive victory at 
Goojerat, where, for the first time, Sikh and Afghan were 
banded together against the British power. (February 21, 
1849.) This battle put an end to the war. The Punjab 
was then annexed to the British empire, and its ruler, 
Maharajah Dhuleep Sing Bahadoor, a boy eleven years old, 
became a pensioner of the East India Company. At the 
same time, the valuable diamond called the ' Koh-i-noor' 
was surrendered to the Queen of England. The ' Maha- 
rajah ' afterwards embraced Christianity, and took up his 
residence in England, where he now possesses several 
estates. 

The Sikh war was no sooner ended than the attention 
of the Indian Government was called to Burmah. The 
Governor of. Eangoon having ill-treated several merchants 
and commanders of vessels. Commodore Lambert was sent 
from Calcutta with a small squadron to demand reparation. 
The King of Ava refused to grant any redress, and, conse- 
quently, a British 'force, early in 1852, invaded his terri- 
tories. Martaban, Rangoon, Bassein, and Pegu, soon fell 
into our hands ; and, as the king showed no signs of sub- 
mission, the province of Pegu was annexed to the British 
dominions, and all communications with the capital strictly 



VICTOEIA. 497 

cut off. (December 20, 1852.) Tlie blockade of the 
Irrawaddy brought the king to his senses, and in the 
spring of 1853 he sought peace, and ceded by treaty the 
province which had been annexed. This territory, con- 
taining 40,000 square miles, and a population of 3,000,000, 
was added to our empire. 

The peace which followed these wars in the East was 
broken in 1857 by a Mutiny of the Sepoys, or native 
troops. The army of the East India Company was chiefly 
composed of natives, of whom a large proportion were 
high -caste Brahmins. These men had been so pampered 
and petted that the idea became very prevalent among 
them that the empire could not continue without their 
services, and on several occasions in late years they had 
showed a mutinous spirit. The religious diiFerences of 
the Brahmin and Mahometan troops strengthened the 
hands of Government in dealing with the native army, 
but, unfortunately, the authorities, by some strange fatality, 
issued cartridges greased with animal fat, which offended 
the religious scruples of both Hindoos and Mahometans, 
and enabled them to enter into a mutual league for the 
overthrow of our Indian empire. Every concession of the 
Government failed to remove the suspicion, which evil 
designing men had cunningly suggested, that the Christian 
religion only was to be tolerated in India. The spirit of 
disaffection at length burst forth into revolt at Meerut, in 
the spring of 1857. The mutineers, having murdered 
their European officers with their wives and children, and 
set fire to the cantonments, hastened to Delhi, where they 
were received with acclamation. The King of Delhi 
assumed the title and authority of Mogul, and basely con- 
nived at the massacre of all the Europeans who had sought 
refuge in the royal palace. The flame of revolt quickly 
spread to all the chief stations in Bengal, and at most of 
them fearful horrors were perpetrated. Cawnpore, espe- 
cially, was the scene of revolting cruelty. There Nana 
Sahib, a Mahratta chief, who had always pretended great 
friendship for the English, and who, a year or two before, 
had been welcomed in the drawing-rooms of London, in- 



498 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

veigled some hundreds of men, women, and children into 
iiis power, and then allowed his frenzied soldiery to butcher 
them in cold blood. Throughout this terrible crisis in 
India, the English who escaped massacre behaved with the 
greatest heroism. At Lucknow, they endured all the 
horrors of a terrible siege until relieved by Sir Colin 
Campbell (Lord Clyde). Delhi was recaptured with the 
greatest daring after a siege of three months ; and before 
the close of the year, the whole of Bengal lay once more 
at the feet of England. Amongst the valiant men who 
shed lustre upon the English name and helped to restore 
British supremacy in the East, may be mentioned the 
names of Outram, Havelock, Lawrence, Nicholson, and 
Hodson. A terrible vengeance overtook the leaders and 
abettors of the mutiny, while the chiefs who remained 
faithful were amply rewarded. The miscreant Nana Sahib, 
however, made good his escape. 

The mutiny caused many changes in Hindostan. The 
government of the country was transferred from the East 
India Company to the Queen of England, and a Secretary 
of State for India, with a Council of fifteen persons, was 
appointed to manage the affairs of our Eastern empire. 

War with Russia. 

After the battle of Waterloo, Europe remained free 
from any great war for forty years. In 1853, Eussia, 
acting under the belief that the time had come for the 
dismemberment of the Turkish empire, picked a quarrel 
with the Sultan about the ' Holy Places ' at Jerusalem, 
and sent an army across the Pruth to occupy the princi- 
palities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The Czar Nicholas 
had previously attempted to gain the co-operation of 
England by proposing to give to her Egypt, and perhaps 
Candia, as her share of the ' sick man's' spoils. A similar 
offer was also made to France. Turkey, relying upon the 
aid of the Western Powers, declared war against Eussia. 
(October 4, 1853.) Omar Pasha, the Turkish commander- 
in-chief, crossed the Danube, and repulsed the Eussians 
at Olteniza ; but this first success was soon after counter- 



VICTOKIA. 499 

balanced by the destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope, 
France and Britain, after vainly striving to preserve peace, 
entered into an alliance for the protection of the Sultan's do- 
minions, and declared war against Russia (March 28,1854.) 
The French and English armies, under Marshal St. 
Arnaud and Lord Raglan respectively, assembled at 
Varna to cover Constantinople ; but the Turks so gallantly 
defended the banks of the Danube that the allies found 
themselves at liberty to transfer their arms to the Crimea, 
for the capture of Sebastopol. The allied fleets, after 
bombarding Odessa, convoyed the troops across the Black 
Sea, and on September 14, 56,000 men, including 6,000 
Turks, landed without opposition at Eupatoria. The 
Russian commander. Prince MenschikoiF, had taken up 
what he considered an impregnable position on the river 
Alma; and so confident was he of victory, that he had 
invited a party of ladies from Sebastopol to witness the 
destruction of the invaders. But he soon found out his 
mistake. In three hours his army of 50,000 men was 
driven from the heights of Alma, leaving 8,000 dead or 
wounded on the field. The allied loss amounted 
to 3,479 men, of which nearly 2,000 were British. 1 0K4. ' 
The Russians then retreated to Sebastopol, while 
the allies boldly marched across the country and 
took up a position on the south side of that great strong- 
hold. The British made the little port of Balaklava tlieir 
head-quarters. On October 17, the city was attacked by 
land and sea ; but the famous Russian engineer, Todleben, 
had made such good use of the interval of time since the 
Alma, that the place was almost impregnable. Eight days 
after this unsuccessful bombardment, the Russians attacked 
the British position at Balaklava, but were repulsed. This 
battle will ever be memorable for the gallant charge of our 
Light Cavalry Brigade upon the enemy's batteries. 
By some mistake in the delivery of orders, six -.qitj, ' 
hundred horsemen charged an army in position, 
literally rushing ' into the jaws of death ' ! In 
the following month, the enemy, taking advantage of a 
thick mist, attempted to surprise the English position on 



500 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

the slopes of Inkermann. Forty thousand Russians issued 

from the city in the early morning, and had advanced cloiie 

to the English pickets before their presence was discovered, 

and against this host only 8,000 British soldiers could be 

mustered. But every man fought like a hero, 

■tciKA,' ^^^i i^ spite of overwhelming odds, kept the 

. _ enemy in check for several hours, till the arrival 

A.D. *' . ' 

of a French force completed their discomfiture. 

While these things were going on in the Black Sea, 
Admiral Napier, with the British fleet, accompanied by a 
French squadron, entered the Baltic. Cronstadt, the great 
fortress which guards the approach to St. Petersburg!!, was 
too strong to be attacked, and, as the Eussian fleet feared 
to leave port, little remained to be done in that quarter. 
Bomarsund, in the Aland Isles, was captured, and, after 
this exploit, the allies withdrew from the Baltic. Some 
English ships visited the White Sea, blockaded Archangel, 
and destroyed a part of Kola. 

During the winter months the troops in the Crimea 
suffered dreadful hardships. The British soldiers, espe- 
cially, died by hundreds, of cold, sickness, and want, 
though abundance of stores of all kinds was lying at 
Balaklava, a few miles off from the camp. This mis- 
management excited such indignation in England as to 
occasion the fall of the Aberdeen Ministry. The British 
public did its best by lavish generosity to atone for the 
failure of the Government. There were few English homes 
where hands were not busy in making some comfort or other 
for our starving soldiers in the trenches before Sebastopol. 

In January, 1855, Sardinia joined the Western. Powers, 
and sent an army of 15,000 men to the Crimea. A railway 
was also made from Balaklava to the British camp, and an 
electric telegraph was laid down to connect the Crimea 
with the Western capitals. A Russian attack upon Eupa- 
toi-ia, in February, proved a failure. The death of the 
Emperor Nicholas, on March 2, seemed to offer a prospect 
of peace, but the allies were bent on the destruction of 
Sebastopol, and so the war continued. While the siege 
went slowly on, a naval expedition, in the month of May^ 



VICTOKIA. 501 

entered the Sea of Azov, captured Kertsch and several 
other places, and destroyed vast quantities of stores. 
During the summer, the chief command in both armies 
changed hands more than once. Lord Raglan succumbed 
to cholera, and was succeeded by General Simpson, who 
soon resigned the command to Sir "William Codrington. 
In the French army. General Canrobert, who had suc- 
ceeded St. Arnaud, was superseded by Pelissier. In? 
August, the Russians attacked the Franco- Sardinian posi- 
tion on the Tchernaya, but were repulsed with loss. The 
perseverance of the allies was at length crowned with suc- 
cess. On September 8, the MalakofF Tower, the key of 
the Riissian position, was taken with a rush by the French, 
while the English made a diversion by assaulting the 
Redan, which, however, from its exposed nature, they 
were unable to hold. The fate of Sebastopol was now 
sealed. During the night Prince Gortschakoff, the Russian 
commander, after sinking all the ships, withdrew to the 
north side of the harbour, and the allies became masters of 
the city against which their cannon had thundered for about a 
year. All the dockyards and batteries of the town were then 
blown up, and the great stronghold became a heap of ruins. 

In the summer of 1855, Admiral Dundas, the successor 
of Napier, entered the Baltic and bombarded Sveaborg; 
but the Russian fleet, as before, remained safely behind 
the Cronstadt forts. 

In Circassia, the Turks, under the command of the cele- 
brated Schamyl, fought bravely against the enemy. There 
the English General Williams distinguished himself by the 
able defence of Kars, which famine at length compelled 
him to surrender (November 7, 1855). 

The fall of Sebastopol virtually put an end to the war. 
Peace negotiations terminated in the Treaty of Paris, by 
which Russia agreed to recede from the demands that led 
to the war ; to give up the protectorate of the Danubian 
Principalities ; to dismantle the fortifications of Mar.30, 
Sebastopol; and to keep only a limited number 1856 
of war-ships in the Black Sea. This treaty has a.d. 
lately undergone some modifications favourable to Russia. 



^.02 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

The Abyssinian War. 

The quarrel with Abyssinia arose from the conduct of 
its half- civilised king, Theodore, towards some British 
subjects. Theodore, having taken offence because a letter 
of his to our Queen had not been answered, seized the 
British Consul, and other Europeans on whom he managed 
to lay hands, and kept them in prison, threatening even to 
take their lives. All remonstrances on the part of our 
Government failed to move the tyrannical king, and it 
was therefore resolved to send an expedition to release the 
captives. In 1868, a well-equipped army of about 10,000 
men, under Sir Robert Napier, a distinguished Indian 
officer, was despatched to the eastern coast of Africa. 
Magdala, Theodore's capital, lay far inland, and to this 
place there was no direct road from the sea ; but, nothing 
daunted, our troops cut a way for themselves, and suc- 
ceeded in reaching the tyrant's stronghold almost without 
jSring a shot. The garrison of the place had little chance 
against the Snider rifles and Armstrong guns of the English 
army, and Theodore, when he saw that all was lost, com- 
mitted suicide. The European captives were liberated, 
Magdala destroyed, and the young son of its late king was 
brought to England to be educated. Sir Robert Napier 
was rewarded for his success with the title of Lord Napier 
of Magdala. 

Ministerial Changes and Measures. 

Repeal of the Corn Laws. Second Reform Bill. Irish 
Church Bill. National Education. 

During the reign of Victoria, many important political 
events have engaged the attention of Parliament and the 
country. Of these, the first in order of time, if not in 
importance, was the establishment of the Anti-Corn Law 
League in Manchester, in 1838. This society had for its 
object the abolition of the duties which had been put upon 
the importation of foreign corn in order to * protect ' the 



VICTOEIA. 603 

Tiome-gi'ower by keeping up the price of wheat. Of the 
many men who supported the principles of the League, 
two names stand very conspicuous, John Bright and 
Eichard Cobden. Most of those engaged in the cultivation 
of the soil, the landowners and farmers, stoutly opposed 
the Anti-Corn-Law agitation, believing that the free im- 
portation of foreign grain would prove their ruin. But 
the principle of free-trade found such acceptance in the 
country, that when Sir Eobert Peel succeeded Lord 
Melbourne as Prime Minister in 1841, he was compelled 
to grapple with the question. Some changes were made 
in the corn laws, but not sufficient to satisfy the sup- 
porters of the League. The subject continued to be agi- 
tated, imtil the potato blight of 1845, and the consequent 
famine in Ireland, convinced the premier that ' protective ' 
duties on corn could no longer be maintained. He, con- 
sequently, introduced a Bill into Parliament repealing the 
corn-laws, retaining only a duty of one shilling 
per quarter, which passed both Houses by large - q^^ ' 
majorities. At the same time, the duty on 
numerous articles underwent a reduction. The 
loss thus occasioned to the revenue was made up by the 
imposition of an Income-tax. This novel impost was 
limited to three years, in the hope that at the end of the 
time it might be dispensed with ; but the upper and 
middle classes of society still continue to be saddled with 
this tax. 

Two days after the repeal of the corn laws. Sir Robert 
Peel, deserted by his Conservative friends, and opposed by 
the Whigs, resigned office, and was succeeded in the 
premiership by Lord John Eussell. Under his adminis- 
tration, the principles of free trade were further extended, 
in 1849, by the repeal of the Navigation Laws, which for 
two centuries had kept the carrying trade of the country 
in English bottoms. 

Early in 1852, Lord Russell's Government was suc- 
ceeded by a Conservative Ministry under the Earl of 
Derby, with Mr. Benjamin Disraeli as Chancellor of the 
Exchequer; but before the close of the year, the new 



504 HISTOBY OF ENGLAND. 

premier, failing to obtain the support of tlie House of 
Commons, was obliged to resign. A Coalition Ministry, 
consisting of Peelites, Whigs, and Eadicals, was then 
formed, under the leadership of the Earl of Aberdeen, with 
Mr. Gladstone as Chancellor of the Exchequer. The 
terrible sufferings of our troops in the Crimea during the 
winter brought the Aberdeen Cabinet into such bad 
repute that it was compelled, early in 1855, to make way 
for a more vigorous Administration under Lord Palmer- 
ston. This able statesman retained office till 1858, when, 
in consequence of an attempt to assassinate the Emperor 
of the French in Paris, he introduced a Bill in Parliament 
for amending the law relating to conspiracy against the 
lives of foreign sovereigns. Defeated on this measure, he 
resigned, and Lord Derby returned to power. About the 
same time, in answer to certain menaces of French officers 
against England, the volunteer movement was set on foot. 

For several years past, the question of Parliamentary 
Reform had occupied the public attention, and the Whigs, 
having held out sundry promises of Reform, the new 
Government was compelled to do something in the matter. 
Lord Derby's attempt, however, to grapple with the 
question, was opposed in the Commons, and, consequently, 
he vacated office. (June 11, 1859.) During the short 
Conservative Administration, two important measures 
became kw : one for the better government of Hindostan, 
by the nbolition of the power of the East India Company, 
the other for the admission of Jews into Parliament. In 
accordance with the latter Bill, Baron Rothschild took his 
seat in the House of Commons as member for the City of 
London. 

The Derby Ministry was succeeded by one under Lord 
Palmerston, who retained the seals of office until his death, 
in 1865. His place was then filled by Earl Russell, who 
had been raised to the peerage a few years before, while 
Mr. Gladstone undertook to lead the House of Commons. 
The new Government at once attempted to pass a mode- 
rate Reform Bill, but, meeting with defeat, it resigned, 
and Lord Derby became premier for the third time. 



VICTORIA. 505 

The Conservative Ministry, much to the surprise of 
their friends and the country, introduced a radical measure 
of Eeform, in the hope of settling once for all this long- 
disputed question. The second Reform Bill, which the 
premier styled ' A leap in the dark,' gave the franchise in 
towns to all householders, conditional upon the payment of 
rates. Votes were also given to lodgers. Some of the 
large boroughs were allowed to return three members, in 
order that the opposing political parties in the large centres 
of population might each have a chance of being 
represented. The franchise in counties was re- 
duced to a rental of 12Z. On the assembling of 
the new Parliament in 1868, Lord Derby retired, through 
ill-health, from the premiership, and was succeeded by Mr. 
Disraeli. The proposal to disestablish and disendow the 
Irish Church, on the plea that it was the Church of the 
minority of the Irish people, was strenuously resisted by 
the new premier, who appealed to the voice of the country 
on this important matter. The elections returned to the 
House of Commons a majority pledged to overthrow Pro- 
testant ascendency in Ireland ; and Mr. Disraeli, in con- 
sequence, made way for a Liberal Administration under 
Mr. Gladstone. (1868.) 

The parliamentary session of 1869 was chiefly taken up 
in debating the disestablishment and disendowment of the 
Irish Church. The proposal Avas warmly contested in both 
Houses ; and, in the Lords especially, the debates on the 
Opposition side were marked by rare force and eloquence. 
The desire to conciliate the Irish people, however, over- 
came the objections of the peers, and the Irish Church Bill 
became law. According to its provisions, the Church Esta- 
blishment in Ireland ceased to exist on January 1, 1871. 

In 1870, another effort was made to make Ireland con- 
tented by the passing of a Land Bill, with a view to put 
landlord and tenant on a better footing with each other. 

During the same year, the question of National Educa- 
tion was ably handled by the ministry ; and, through the 
exertions of Mr. Forster, the Vice-President of the Com- 
mittee of Council on Education, Parliament gave its 



606 HISTOEY OP ENGLAND. 

sanction to an educational measiire, which will, no doubt, 
prove a great blessing to our country. 

The reign of Queen Victoria is one of the brightest 
periods in English history. Abroad, our arms have been 
victorious over every foe ; and, at home, by wise legisla- 
tion, immense progress has been made in everything that 
tends to make a country great. Manufactures have multi- 
plied, commerce has greatly increased, the arts and sciences 
have received the highest patronage and encouragement, 
literature has become widely diffused, and education has 
been improved and extended throughout all ranks of 
society. The Queen herself has been throughout her whole 
reign a bright example of every Christian virtue; and as 
sovereign, wife, and mother, she has shed lustre on the 
English name. Her Majesty, however, has not been with- 
out her troubles and trials. At the beginning of 1861, 
she followed her good and affectionate mother to the grave; 
and before the close of the year, a far greater bereavement 
awaited her in the death of her royal husband. Prince 
Albert died of typhoid fever, at Windsor, December 14, 
1861. His loss was deeply felt by the whole nation, which 
had learnt to respect and admire him for his many virtues. 
He left an unbroken family of four sons and five daughters : 
(1) Victoria, married to Frederick William of Prussia, 
now the Imperial Prince of Germany ; (2) Albert Edward 
Prince of Wales, married Princess Alexandra of Denmark ; 
(3) Alice Maud Mary, married Prince Frederick Louis of 
Hesse Darmstadt ; (4) Alfred, created Earl of Kent and 
Duke of Edinburgh ; (5) Helena, married Prince Christian 
of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg ; (6) Louisa, married 
the Marquis of Lome; (7) Arthur; (8) Leopold; and 
(9) Beatrice. 

Nine years before the Prince Consort's death, England's 
great soldier, the ' hero of a hundred fights,' went to his 
last resting-place. On September 14, 1852, Wellington 
died at Walmer Castle, at the age of eighty-three, and in 
the following November his coffin was laid in the crypt of 
St. Paul's Cathedral, near the tomb of Nelson. 



VICTOKIA. 607 



Miscellaneous Facts, 



In 1843, Wales was much disturbed by the Rebekah 
riots. The object of the rioters was the destruction of 
toll-gates, and they called themselves ' Eebekah's daughters,' 
from the passage in Genesis xxiv. 60, where is found a 
prayer that Eebekah's seed should possess the gates of their 
enemies. The men engaged in the riots dressed themselves 
in women's clothes. 

The same year is memorable in Scotland for the dis- 
ruption of the Established Church. A dispute about the 
right of presentation to livings caused a numerous and 
influential body to secede from the Establishment and 
found a Free Church. 

In 1850, the Pope caused great excitement in England 
by the appointment of a Eoman Catholic hierarchy, with 
territorial titles. The aggression was met by an Eccle- 
siastical Titles Bill, which made the assumption of sucb 
titles punishable by law. The Bill, however, became a 
dead letter, and has since been repealed. 

The year 1851 will ever be remembered for the Great 
Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations. The credit of 
the idea is due to the Prince Consort, who devoted much 
of his time to ensure the success of the enterprise. A 
building constructed of iron and glass was designed by Sir 
Joseph Paxton, and erected in Hyde Park. The number 
of persons who visited the Exhibition is estimated at 
7,000,000. The brilliant success of the undertaking led 
to similar exhibitions in other cities and countries. A 
second Exhibition was opened in London in 1862. The 
materials of the first have been used to construct the 
Crystal Palace now standing at Sydenham. 

From the year 1861 to 1865, the cotton manufacture of 
England was paralysed by the civil war in America be- 
tween the Northern and Southern States. Lancashire was 
the scene of great distress, consequent upon the stoppage 
of the mills. Throughout the whole country noble efforts 
were made to assist the distressed operatives, who bore 



508 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

their suiFerings with the greatest endurance. England- 
narrowly escaped being drawn into the American quarrel, 
in consequence of the seizure by the Northerners of two 
Southern gentlemen on board the British steamer * Trent' 
in the West Indies, but the surrender of the captives saved 
the country from war. The exploits of the Confederate 
ship ' Alabama,' which had been built on the Mersey, and 
had left the river by stratagem, created a bad feeling 
against England in the Northern States, and more than 
once threatened to cause a serious quarrel between the two 
countries. Early in 1871, a treaty was concluded at 
Washington by the English and American Governments 
to settle amicably all claims and disputes which arose 
during the civil war. 

The war between France and Prussia, in 1870, excited 
much sympathy in Britain for the sick and wounded. 
Contributions, amounting to 300,000/., were quickly raised 
to mitigate the horrors of war, and numerous volunteer 
nurses devoted themselves to succour the unhappy victims 
of a most terrible conflict. Prussia, at the head of united 
Germany, overran the northern half of France, captured 
Paris, and dictated most humiliating terms of peace. The 
defeat of the French armies cost Napoleon his throne, and 
France once more adopted a Eepublican Government. 
Germany, on the other hand, revived the empire over- 
thrown by the first Napoleon, and conferred upon the 
victorious King of Prussia the title of Emperor of 
Germany. 

Among the principal inventions and discoveries, &c. of 
the reign, may be mentioned : the first electric telegraph, 
invented by Wheatstone in 1837 ; the first steamboat, the 
* Siiius,' crossed the Atlantic from Cork to New York, 
in 1838; the penny post came into operation, chiefly 
through the exertions of Mr. Rowland Hill, in 1840 ; 
Thames Tunnel opened in 1843 ; submarine telegraph laid 
down between Dover and Calais, and Britannia Tubular 
Bridge stretched across the Menai Strait, in 1850 ; sub- 
marine telegraph from England to Ireland in 1852 ; dis- 
covery of the North- West Passage by Captain McClure in 



VICTOEIA. 509 

1853 ; launch of the ' Great Eastern ' on the Thames in 
1858 ; the Ionian Islands ceded to Greece in 1863 ; the 
Rinderpest, or Cattle Plague, raged in England in 1865 5 
the Atlantic Cable successfully laid in 1866. 



LEADING AUTHORS UNDER VICTORIA. 

POETS. 

ROBERT SOUTHEY (177-4-1843), a native of Bristol: one of the 
Lake School of poets: Poet-laureate in 1813; author of the 
poems ' Joan of Arc ' and ' Thalaba ;' wrote in prose ' The Life of 
Nelson/ &c. 

THOMAS CAMPBELL (1774-1844), born in Glasgow: author of 
' The Pleasures of Hope ;' wrote also the inspiriting ballads ' The 
Battle of the Baltic ' and * Ye Mariners of England.' 

WILLIAM WORDSWORTH (1770-1850), born at Cockermouth : 
one of England's great poets : founded the Lake School of poetry ; 
Poet-laureate after Southey ; chief works, * The " Excursion' and 

* The White Doe of Eylstone.' 

THOMAS MOORE (1779-1852), regarded as the national poet of 
Ireland ; lived chiefly in London : author of * Lalla Eookh,' * The 
Irish Melodies,' and many lyric poems. 

SAMUEL ROGERS (1762-1855), a London banker: chief poem, 

* The Pleasures of Memory.' 

SHERIDAN KNOWLES (1784-1862), a famous dramatist : wrote 

* William Tell,' ' The Hunchback,' &c. 

ALFRED TENNYSON (1810), the present Poet-laureate, born at 
Somerby, Lincolnshire : author of * The Princess,' * In Memo- 
riam/ * Idylls of the King,' &c. 



PROSE WRITERS. 

JOHN LINGARD (1771-1851), a Eoman Cathohc priest: author 
of a ' History of England' up to 1688; pensioned by the Queen 
for his literary labours. 

JOHN M. KEMBLE (1807-1857), a historian : author of * The 
Saxons in England.' 
23 



610 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. 

LOED MACAULAY (1800-1859), a famous liistorian : wrote a 
' History of England,' chiefly comprising the seventeenth century ; 

* The Lays of Ancient Kome,' and several essays. 

WILLIAM M. THACKERAY (1811-1863), born in India: a dis- 
tinguished novelist ; author of ' Vanity Fair,' ' Pendennis,' &c. 

CHARLES BICKENS (1812-1870), a celebrated novelist : author 
of ' The Pickwick Papers, ' David Copperfield,' &c. 

SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON (1792-1867), a Scotch lawyer: wrote 
' History of Europe,' and * History of the French Eevolution.' 

LORD LYTTON (1805-1873) : statesman, novelist, and dramatist ; 
author of the play ' Lady of Lyons,' and numerous novels. 

THOMAS CARLYLE (1795), born in Dumfriesshire: an eccentric 
but clever writer ; author of ' History of the French Eevolution,' 

* Frederick the Great,' &c. 

BENJAMIN DISRAELI (1806), a distinguished statesman and 
novelist : author of ' Vivian Grey,' ' Lothair,' &c. 



LEADING ARTISTS. 

SIR DAVID WILKIE (1785-1841), a Scotch painter: chief works, 
• Blind Fiddler,' and ' Knox Preaching before Queen Mary.' 

SIR ERANCIS CHANTREY (1782-1848), a native of Derbyshire : 
a famous sculptor; chief work, monument of Two Sisters in 
Lichfield Cathedral.' 

JOSEPH W. TURNER (1775-1851), a distinguished landscape 
painter : died in humble lodgings in London. 

SIR CHARLES L. EASTLAKE (1793-1865), a great painter: be- 
came President of the Eoyal Academy ; chief work, * Christ weep- 
ing over Jerusalem.' 



LEADING INVENTORS, &c. 

GEORGE STEPHENSON (1781-1848), born at Wylaw, Northum- 
berland : a cowherd in boyhood ; became a great railway engineer ; 
invented the locomotive engine. Father of ROBERT STEPHEN- 
SON (1803-1859), also a distinguished engineer: constructed the 
tubular bridge over the Menai Strait, and the Victoria Bridge 
over the Eiver St, Lawrence. 



VICTOEIA. 611 

SIR MARK ISAMBARD BRUNEL (1769-1849), a great engineer : 
constructed the Thames Tunnel. Father of Mr. BRTJNEL, who 
made the Great "Western Eailway, and the ' Great Western' and 
' Great Eastern ' steamers. 

SIR JOSEPH PAXTON (1803-1865), originally a landscape gar- 
dener: designed the building for the Great Exhibition of 1851, 
and the gardens, &c. of the Crystal Palace, at Sydenham. 

MICHAEL FARADAY (1791-1867), a native of Newington, Surrey: 
apprenticed to a bookseller ; became an eminent Chemist and 
Natural Philosopher ; author of several scientific works. 

SIR DAVID BREWSTER (1781-1868), born at Jedburgh: edu- 
cated for the Scottish Church ; distinguished in literature and 
science ; famous for discoveries in optics ; invented the kaleido- 
scope. 

SIR JOHN HERSCHEL (1792-1871), born at Slough: only sou of 
the great astronomer ; distinguished in science ; author of many 
scientific works. 



512 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE HANOVEEIAN PERIOD. 



Population. National Industry. Modes of Convey- 
ance. Food. Dress. Dwellings. Amusements. 
Learning and Literature. 

Population. — The census taken in 1801 gives the popu- 
lation of England and Wales as 8,892,536, thus showing 
that, during the eighteenth century, there had been an in- 
crease of about 3,000,000 souls. The census of 1871 gives a 
return of 22,704,108 people, or an increase since 1801 of 
13,811,572. The total number of the population of the 
United Kingdom at the present time is 31,817,108. The 
rapid increase during the latter half of this period has 
occurred chiefly in the manufacturing districts and the 
metropolis. A flow of emigrants to the United States and 
British possessions has been continually going* on through- 
out the whole period, and especially since the war of 
American Independence, and therefore this drain must be 
considered in estimating the prosperity of the country. 
The number of emigrants, from the year 1815 to 1869, is 
estimated at 6,756,697. 

National Industry. — In all branches of industry our 
country has made gigantic progress during this period. 
The use of machinery has produced such a change in the 
employments of the people, and increased the productive- 
ness of labour, that the men of the early part of the last 
century would not now recognise the England of their day, 
if they could rise from their graves. Agriculture, which 
then employed four-fifths of the working population, now 
engages the labour of only about one-tenth. The large 
manufacturing towns and sea-ports have absorbed the rural 
labourers, and provided them with very different work. 
During the first half of the last century, attention was 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE HANOYEEIAN PEEIOD. 513 

drawn to the large extent of waste and uncultivated land in 
the country, and measures were taken by Parliament to re- 
claim it, and, by the end of the year 1854, nearly 7,000,000 
acres were brought under cultivation. Up to about the year 
1763, sufficient corn was grown at home to supply the wants 
of the people, but after that date the increase of the popula- 
tion, in consequence of the growth of manufactures and 
commerce, necessitated the importation of corn. In 1869, 
we were supplied from abroad with corn to the value of 
37,347,358/. The science of agriculture has kept pace with 
all other improvements, and Britain, at present, is famous 
for its farming. 

The woollen manufacture, which hitherto had been the 
staple industry of the country, has now given place to that 
of cotton. At the beginning of the period, the woollen 
trade was protected and encouraged by Act of Parliament, 
and, thus fostered, it made some progress. In 1700, the 
value of woollen goods exported amounted to 3,000,000Z, ; 
at the end of a hundred years, the value was doubled ; and 
in the year 1869, it had reached the sum of 22,625, 190Z. 
The improvement of the manufacture has called many 
towns into existence, especially in the "West Eiding of 
Yorkshire, and it is estimated that about 200,000 hands 
are employed in the trade. 

The cotton manufacture has been wonderfully developed 
during this period. In the year 1720, the imports of raw 
cotton amounted to nearly 2,000,000 pounds weight; in 1800, 
it was about 56,000,000 ; and in 1869, it had reached the 
enormous figure of 1,220,809,856 lbs. The rapid growth 
of this manufacture is mainly due to the inventions of 
Hargreaves, Arkwright, Crompton, and Cartwright, and 
the continued improvement of machinery. The seat of the 
trade is in Lancashire, where about 300,000 people find 
employment in the numerous cotton-mills of the county. 
The value of cotton goods exported is three times that of 
woollen. 

The silk manufacture, which in the seventeenth centuiy 
promised to take an important place in national industry, 
has made very little progress. Up to the year 1824, the 



514 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

importation of foreign silkwas forbidden, for the purpose of 
encouraging, as it was thought, our home trade ; but such 
protection was most injurious to the silk manufacture. In 
the time of Charles II., forty thousand persons were said to 
be employed as silk-throwsters, but in 1835 the estimated 
number of hands at work in 231 silk factories was about 
thirty thousand. Since the removal of the restrictions upon 
foreign silk, the manufacture has made considerable pro- 
gress, and now employs, in its various branches, more than 
100,000 persons. 

The linen trade, until the last fifty years, has been in a 
languishing state. Ireland was the only place where it 
made any progress, and there it was encouraged by royal 
bounties up to the year 1830. Mills for flax-spinning were 
first erected in England at Darlington, about the close of 
the last century. At present, the chief seat of the manu- 
facture is at Leeds and its immediate neighbourhood. 
Linen was long reckoned the staple branch of industry 
carried on in Scotland, but until the present century, its 
progress was very slow. We now export from the United 
Kingdom linen fabrics of the amount of nearly 10,000,000Z. 
In hardware manufacture, and in that of brass, copper, 
and plated wares, there has been an immense growth. 
Some idea of this fact may be given by comparing the 
present population of Birmingham, the centre of the trade, 
with what it was at the close of the Stuart period. Then 
it could only boast of about 4,000 souls ; now it numbers 
nearly 350,000. The value of metal goods exported in 
1860 reached the enormous value of 19,519,201^. 

Another branch of industry which has risen to great 
importance in this period is that of earthenware. Before 
the year 1760, the ' Potteries ' could produce nothing to 
vie with the stoneware products of France ; but from that 
time the improvements introduced by Mr. Josiah Wedg- 
wood gave such an impetus to the trade that it now 
occupies a foremost place among the industries of Great 
Britain. The numerous towns which are scattered over 
North Staffordshire, with their teeming population, bear 
witness to the progress of the stoneware manufacture. 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE HANOVEEIAN PERIOD. 515 

Mining operations have developed the mineral wealth 
of the country to an enormous extent. The quantity of 
iron raised in 1740 was about 17,000 tons; in 1869, the 
amount was 5,445,757 tons. The progress of the iron 
manufacture in South Wales and Monmouthshire has been 
something extraordinary. Merthyr Tydvil, in the middle 
of the last century, was an insignificant village ; it now 
contains a population of nearly 100,000 souls, all more or 
less dependent upon the iron trade. But the increase in the 
produce of our coal-mines is something fabulous. In 1780, 
the quantity of coal raised for general use was about 2,500 
tons. In 1869, there were 2,900 collieries at work, and from 
their depths were raised, in that year, 107,427,557 tons. 
Besides the immense quantity of coal used for domestic 
consumption and home manufactures, the value of that ex- 
ported is more than 5,000,000/. 

Of the remaining minerals, the greatest improvement 
has been in the production of salt. The beds of rock-salt 
found in Cheshire at the close of the seventeentli century 
have furnished annually thousands of tons of this important 
mineral, which we now export in large quantities. It is 
unnecessary to speak of the numerous other branches of 
industry which have grown into importance since the 
Stuart times ; but to show how flourishing and immense 
our commerce is, it is sufficient to state that the present 
annual value of our imports and exports is 532,475,266/. 

Modes of Conveyance. — At the beginning of the period, 
the public roads still continued in a wretched condition. 
Even as late as 1770, the highways in some districts were 
scarcely passable. There were ruts four feet deep, and 
floating with mud, on some roads, even in siunmer ; we can 
imagine, then, what their plight was in winter. The 
carriage of goods was still done chiefly ' by pack-horses ; 
but a better state of things arose with the development of 
our manufactures. The improvement of the public roads 
towards the close of the last century brought out improved 
carriages, and a mail-coach could run in eight hours a 
distance which formerly took nineteen. 

The necessity of having better means of communication 



516 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

between the manufacturing towns led to the formation of 
canals, which may be said to date their origin from an Act 
passed in 1755 to make a canal eleven miles long at Sankey- 
brook, Lancashire. Four years later, the Duke of Bridge- 
water obtained the consent of Parliament to construct those 
great works which has made his name and that of his great 
engineer, Brindley, illustrious. The numerous canals since 
constructed, together with the improvement of navigable 
rivers, have given us an inland navigation of more than 
4,000 miles in extent. 

The rapid growth of trade and manufactures in the 
present century brought our railways into existence. Long 
before, in some of the Newcastle colliery districts, rails made 
of timber had been in use, and in 1767 the first experi- 
ment was made of substituting iron for wood. In 1801, 
the first Act of Parliament was passed for making a public 
railway between Wandsworth and Croydon, but the rail- 
way of that day was nothing like the great works which 
now extend through the country. The first modern rail- 
way was opened between Liverpool and Manchester in 
1830. The projectors scarcely gave a thought to the con- 
veyance of passengers ; their chief obj ect was the carriage 
of goods between those rapidly-rising towns. The work, 
thus begun, was speedily taken up in other parts, and by 
the year 1867 a network of railways, 14,247 miles in ex- 
tent, had been made in Great Britain. And side by side 
with the long line of rails have been raised telegraph 
wires, 80,466 miles in length, by which instant communi- 
cation can be held between the most distant towns. 

Means of communication with foreign countries have 
progressed in a wonderful manner. Since the first steam- 
boat plied on the Clyde in 1811, the progress of steam 
navigation has been most rapid. In 1836, the number of 
steam-vessels under the English flag was 600; at the 
present time there are almost three times as many. The 
number of vessels of all kinds engaged in home and foreign 
trade amounted in 1869 to 21,881, manned by 195,490 
men, and having a tonnage of 5,557,303 tons. 

Food. — The character of the food used by the working 
classes has changed very much since the accession of 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE HANOVEEIAN PERIOD. 517 

George I. Wages increased as the country prospered, and 
many things which in former times were regarded as great 
luxuries are now, and have been for years, within the reach 
of the labouring classes. Rye bread, once the working man's 
fare, gradually disappeared from his table ; and by the time 
George III. ascended the throne, five-eighths of the people 
enjoyed the luxury of good wheaten bread. Vegetables, too, 
as beans and peas, became common, and the potato espe- 
cially became a favourite article of diet. Animal food was 
cheap ; as late as 1760, beef and mutton could be bought 
for 2^d. or Sd. per lb. The working classes, therefore, 
in the last century were better off wdth regard to animal 
food than those of the present day. Tea and coffee 
gradually came into general use, as substitutes for beer, at 
breakfast and tea. 

Dress. — Until the time of the French Eevolution, male 
costume underwent little change. Gentlemen wore a 
square-cut coat of silk or velvet, with stiffened shirts ; a 
waistcoat, with large flaps reaching nearly to the knee ; lace 
rufl9.es, knee-breeches, three-cornered cocked hats, and 
shoes with high red heels and buckles of silver, or precious 
stones. At his side dangled a sword, which was often 
drawn to settle a quarrel, and his pocket usually contained 
a silver box full of scented snuff. About the close of the 
last century the whole costume, even to the curled wig, 
underwent a change. RuflSes made way for shirt-collars ; 
the breeches gave place to pantaloons and Hessian boots ; 
the three-cornered hat was superseded by one round in 
shape. These in their turn were followed by loose 
trousers, short boot, and military frock with brass buttons. 
The sword was gradually laid aside in favour of a walking- 
cane, much to the safety of the general public. 

The fashion of ladies' costume was continually changing. 
The hoop, however, kept in use for a long time. In the 
matter of headdress there was always something new. 
At first, small frilled caps with gipsy hats were the rage ; 
then followed the old fashion of combing the hair up to the 
height of a foot or eighteen inches, and decking it with 
ribbons and feathers, as in our own day. In the reign of 
George lY., the old hoOp was laid aside in favour of short 



518 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

skirts, and high-lieeled shoes. The bonnet passed from 
gipsy shape to that of a coal-scuttle, which was the favourite 
fashion when Her Majesty the Queen ascended the throne. 
In the first half of the period, both ladies and gentlemen 
powdered their hair, and the former sex were in the habit 
of spotting their faces over with patches of black plaster. 

The sedan-chair was tlie fashionable mode of conveyance 
in the last century, and at night its occupant was lighted 
home by link-boys. 

Bwellings, — The houses of rich and poor have under- 
gone great improvement. Under the first Georges, the 
residences of the upper classes shoAved little taste. The 
building was generally of an oblong shape, with numerous 
plain-sashed windows, and scarcely any ornament except a 
portico over the front entrance. The stables and kennels 
remained unpleasantly near the house, and flower-gardens 
were rare. In later times, elegant mansions, fitted up 
with every luxury and refinement, testify to the improved 
taste of the wealthier classes. The dwellings of the lower 
orders, too, have been so improved in every way that, with 
the exception of the crowded alleys of our manufacturing 
and sea-port towns, a working man is as well housed now 
as a well-to-do yeoman in the Stuart times, and, with 
regard to furnitiu-e, much better off than a gentleman of 
Elizabeth's day. 

Amusements. — The rough sport of baiting bulls, bears, 
and badgers soon died out ; but pugilism and cock-fighting 
kept their ground till within comparatively recent times. 
It became fashionable to resort for amusement to Assembly 
Eooms. Kanelagh in Chelsea and Vauxhall were famous 
places of resort in the metropolis, and were the scenes of 
much vice and dissipation. In the early part of the 
period the system of Clubs took its origin. Gambling was 
frightfully common. Gentlemen spent their leisure at the 
gaming table in their clubs, and ladies whiled away their 
evenings at whist parties where the stakes were oftentimes 
ruinously high. Drunkenness prevailed amongst all classes 
to a shocking extent. Gentlemen sat so long over their 
wine after dinner, that they were seldom fit to join 
the ladieSj and their language was not fashionable unless 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE HANOVERIAN PERIOD. 519 

well interlarded witli obscene oatlis. During the last fifty 
years, an entire change has fortunately taken place in the 
habits of good society, and a geotleman of the old school 
would not now be tolerated in decent company. Gin-shops 
were the bane of the working classes in the last century. 
The lower orders copied their betters so well, that the 
latter, ashamed and alarmed at the prevailing vice, agitated 
the matter in Parliament as early as 1736, and called for 
remedial measures. When publicans enticed customers 
with words like these painted outside their houses — ' You 
may here get drunk for a penny, dead drunk for twopence, 
and have clean straw for nothing,' the interference of the 
legislature was certainly needed. Parliamentary restric- 
tions, however, failed to do any good so long as the upper 
classes continued to set a bad example. The theatres, 
which retained all the profligacy of the days of Charles II., 
were much patronised by all ranks of society. Singing 
was greatly encouraged, and became a fashionable amuse- 
ment at evening parties, though the words of the song were 
oftentimes unfit for ears polite. The Italian Opera was 
introduced at the beginning of the period, and shortly after 
an English opera was established. The great musician, 
Handel, a native of Saxony, took up his abode in England, 
but some years passed away before his sublime compositions 
were properly appreciated. 

Learning and Literature. — While England has been 
making gigantic strides in manufactures and commerce, she 
has not been unmindful of learning and literature. Educa- 
tion, it is true, until the present century, made but little pro- 
gress, yet the history of our country, under the Brunswick 
dynasty, is distinguished by a host of names of men famous 
in literature and science. Commercial activity seems to 
have quickened intellectual pursuits, and every field of 
thought and inquiry is explored with earnestness, diligence, 
and determination. A remarkable feature of the period is 
the growth of the influence of the Press, which has been 
called the Fourth Estate of the Eealm. In no country in 
the world is the Press so ably conducted as in the United 
Kingdom. Much of the literary talent of the day is em- 
ployed in contributing to the innumerable newspapers and 



520 HISTOHY OF ENGLAND. 

periodicals, whicli circulate far and wide, and find diligent 
readers even in the lowest walks of life. In Science, too, 
our country now occupies a foremost place, and in Art also 
it holds no mean position. The Universities have been 
thrown open to men of all creeds; greater facilities are 
offered to persons of humble means to take advantage of 
our ancient seats of learning ; and Christian men and 
women are working with might and main to bring the 
blessings of education within the reach of the poorest in 
the land. 

The British Constitution. 

The British Constitution is a Limited Monarchy, con- 
sisting of the Sovereign and what are called ' the Three 
Estates of the Kealm,' the Lords Spiritual, the Lords Tem- 
poral, and the Commons. It is thus a combination of a pure 
monarchy, oligarchy, and a republic ; and each of these is 
so well balanced as to make the British Constitution the 
envy of the world. 

The suipreme legislative power is vested in the Parlia- 
ment ; while the executive power rests with the Sovereign, 
who, however, is guided by the Ministry. Thus we possess 
the stability of a monarchy with all the advantages of a 
republic. 

The ofBce of Sovereign is hereditary, and may fall to a 
male or female. The monarch must be a Protestant ; even 
marriage with a Eoman Catholic would be followed by 
forfeiture of the throne. The royal person is regarded as 
sacred, and any attempt to compass the destruction of the 
Sovereign or his heirs, is called high treason, and is punish- 
able with death. 

The royal prerogatives are (1) to convoke, prorogue, or 
dissolve Parliament ; (2) to make war or peace, and con- 
clude treaties with foreign States ; (3) to extend mercy or 
pardon to criminals ; (4) to create all ranks of nobility, and 
appoint to all posts in the army and navy ; (5) to coin 
money. The Sovereign, though said to be above the law, 
is bound as much as his subjects to keep the laws. 

The royal household is maintained by an allowance 
called the Civil List, which now amounts to 385,000?. per 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE HANOVJiKIAN PERIOD. 521 

annum. On the accession of Queen Victoria, the crown 
lands were given up to the nation for the Civil List ; and 
the sum then fixed, in lieu of the royal domains, was much 
less than that voted for previous sovereigns. George I., 
for example, received 1,000,000/. 

Next to the Crown comes the House of Lords, which 
holds a position between Sovereign and People. The mem- 
bers of the Upper House are also called PeerSy of which 
there are two kinds. Spiritual and Temporal. The Lords 
Spiritual consist of twenty- six prelates of the Church of 
England. Previous to the disestablishment of the Irish 
Church, four Irish bishops sat in the House of Lords. The 
number of lords temporal is unlimited, and may be in- 
creased at the sovereign's pleasure. There are five ranks 
of peers — dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons. 
Sixteen Scottish lords are elected for each Parliament, and 
twenty-eight Irish peers are elected for life. The mem- 
bers of the Upper House, during the session of 1870, 
numbered 471. The House of Lords may be considered 
a hereditary body. It is presided over by the Lord 
Chancellor, whose chair of oflice is called the Woolsack. 
It is the highest Law Court in the kingdom, and appeals 
may be made to it irom all inferior Courts. The members 
may vote by proxy, and three are sufiicient to form a 
* House ' for the transaction of business. A peer cannot be 
arrested for debt ; and if accused of treason or felony, can 
only be tried by his peers. 

The House of Commons contains 652 members, who are 
returned by the counties, cities, boroughs, and the Univer- 
sities. England and Wales are represented by 489, Scotland 
by 60, and Ireland by 103. The last-mentioned country, 
in proportion to its taxation, has by far a greater representa- 
tion than either of the former. The Lower House has the 
power of granting or withholding supplies, and thus it can 
effectually control the government. It cannot sit longer 
than seven years ; and a new one must be summoned within 
six months after the accession of a new Sovereign. The 
chairman of the House is called the Speaker, who receives 
a salary of 6,000/. per annum, and is usually made a peer 



522 niSTORY OF ENGLAND. 

when he retires from office. Forty members of the Com- 
mons form a quonim. 

To make a law, the three estates of the realm must agree. 
Proposing a law is called bringing in a Bill, and this may 
be done in either House. Bills, however, which relate to 
taxation of the people must originate in the House of Com- 
mons. Before any proposed measure can become the law 
of the land, it has to pass through the following stages in 
both Houses : (1) A motion is made to introduce the Bill; 
and it is read a first time; (2) It is read a second time; 
(3) it is then committed or referred to a committee of the 
whole House, to be considered clause by clause ; (4) it is 
read a third time. When a Bill has been successfully 
carried through these stages, it only requires the assent of 
the Sovereign, whose signature may be given in 2:>erson or 
by proxy, and an Act of Parliament then becomes law. 

The Crown is assisted in the executive government by the 
Privy Council and the Cabinet. The former is a very 
ancient institution, and consists of persons of eminence 
and ability appointed by the Sovereign. The members are 
dignified with the title of ' Eight Honourable.' They are 
only summoned at important crises in public affairs ; the 
greater part of their work is done by the Cabinet, which 
may be considered as a Committee of the Privy Council. 
Other committees of this ancient body are charged with the 
supervision of National Education, the Poor Laws, Public 
Health, &c. The Cabinet consists of the heads of the 
various departments of government, selected by the 
Sovereign's chief adviser, who is called the Prime Minister, 
or First Lord of the Treasury. This important council is 
called the Cabinet, because it was originally made up of 
such members of the Privy Council who were privileged to 
confer with the King in his cabinet or private room. The 
government of the country practically rests with this body, 
which only exists as long as it can command a majority in 
the House of Commons. The Cabinet usually consists of 
the following persons : — 

The First Lord of the Treasury, or the Premier. 

The Lord Chancellor. 

Lord President of the Coaacil. 



SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE HANOVEKIAN PEEIOD. 523 



Lord Privy Seal. 
Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
First Lord of the Admiralty. 
The Secretarj for Foreign Affairs. 

„ „ Home Affairs. 

„ „ War Department. 

„ „ India. 

„ ,. Ireland. 

„ „ Colonies. 

President of the Board of Trade. 

„ ,, Poor Law Board. 

Postmaster-General. 
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. 

For the administration of justice, there are seventeen 
judges, who sit during term time at Westminster, in the 
Courts of Queen's Bench, Common Pleas, Exchequer, and 
Chancery. The judges also make circuits twice a year 
throughout the kingdom, to hear and decide important civil 
and criminal causes at Assizes. In Scotland, the chief 
tribunals are the Court of Session and the High Court of 
Justiciary. 

The Revenue and Expenditure for the year ending 
March 31, 1870, are as follows: — 



Revenue. 

Customs . . £23,569,892 

Excise . . . 22,605,285 
Stamps . . . 9,545,751 

Taxes : 
Land and Assessed) , . -^ . „„„ 
Property & Income J ' ' 



Post Office . 
Crown Lands 
Telegraph Service 
Miscellaneous 



4,687,260 
447,723 
107,479 

3,205,252 



Gross Eevenue, £78,960,005 



Ezpenditnre. 

Interest on National 

Debt . . . £27,077,529 



Civil List 

Annuities, Pensions, 
Salaries, Courts of 


405,941 


Justice, &e. . 

Army . 

Navy . 

Abyssinian Expedi- 
tion 

Civil Service ; 


1,324,190 

13,565,400 
9,757,290 

1,300,000 


Eevenue Depart- 
ments, Telegraph, 
Post Office, Packet 




Service 


15,458,367 


Total . 
Fortifications 


68,864,718 
200,000 


Gross Expenditure, £69,064,748 



624 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 





How acquired. 


• Date. 


Europe : 




A.D. 


Gibraltar 


Captured from Spain 


1704 


Heligoland 


,, „ Denmark 


1807 


Malta and Gozo 


„ „ France 


1800 


Channel Islands . 


Norman Conquest 


1066 


Isle of Man . 


Purchase, from the Duke of Athol 1825 


Asia: 






Hindostan 


^ Settlement and conquest . 


1648-1856 


Ceylon . 


Captured from Holland 


1796 


Burmese Colonies . 


Conquest 


. 1826-53 


Malacca 


Exchange 


1824 


Penang . 


Purchase 


1785-1802 


Singapore 


j> • • 


1819 


Aden 


Conquest 


1838 


Labuan 


Cession . , , 


1847 


Hong Kong . 


j> • • • 


1842 


Cyprus . 


>» • • • 


1878 


Africa : 






Gambia . 


Settlement 


1631 


Gold Coast . 


)> • • 


1661 


St. Helena . 


Captured from the Dutch 


1651 


Sierra Leone . 


Settlement 


1787 


Cape of Good Hope 


Captured from the Dutch 


1806 


Mauritius 


„ „ French 


1810 


Ascension 


Settlement 


1815 


Natal . 


j> • 


1838 


Lagos 


Cession .... 


1861 


Transvaal . 


Annexation 


1877 



America : 

Newfoundland . Settlement 
Hudson' s Bay Territory , , 



Bermuda 

New Brunswick 1 

Nova Scotia J 



Ceded by France . 



1497 

1609 
1713 



BEITISH POSSESSIONS. 



625 



How acquired. 



America {continued] 


: 


Cape Breton 




Prince Edward's 


Captured from France 


Island . ^ 




Canada 


• >> jj 


British Columbia 


Settlement 


Honduras . 


Cession 


British Guiana 


Captured from Holland 


Falkland Islands 


Cession 


West Indies : 




Barbadoes . 


Settlement 


St. Kitts 


• jj • • 


Nevis . 


• >> • • 


Bahamas 


• )> • • 


Turk's Island 


• j> • • 


Antigua '\ 
MontserratJ 




• >> • • 


Jamaica 


Captured from Spain . 


Grenada 




St. Vincent ■ 


„ France 


Tobago 




Dominica 


• »» >> 


Trinidad 


„ Spain 


St. Lucia 


. „ France 


Australasia : 




New South Wales 


5 . ' Settlement 


Australia, West 


» • • 


„ South 


• >» • • 


„ North 


• }> • • 


Victoria 


• >> • • 


Queensland . 


• » • • 


Tasmania 


• >» • • 


New Zealand 


• >» • • 


Polynesia : 




Fiji Islands . 


Cession . . • 



Bate. 

A.D. 

1758 

1769 
1793 
1763 
1803 
1837 



1605 
1623 
1628 
1629 
1629 

1632 
1655 

1762 

1783 
1797 
1803 



1788 
1829 
1834 
1838 
1837 
1869 
1803 
1839 



1874 



526 



HISTOEY OF ENaLAND. 



EEADING DATES OF THE HANOVERIAN PERIOD. 



GENERAL EVENTS. 



A.D. 

The South Sea Bubble . . .1720 
Eesignation of Walpole . . . 1742 
New Style of Reckoning Time . . 1752 
Execution of Admiral Byng . . 1757 
Bridgewater Canal commenced . . 1758 
Arrest of John Wilkes . . .1763 
Declaration of American Independence 1776 
The Gordon Riots in London . . 1780 
Trial of Warren Hastings . . 1788 
The French Revolution began . , 1789 

Irish Rebellion 1798 

Death of Nelson . . . .1805 

Prince of Wales made Regent . . 1811 
Princess Charlotte died . . . 1817 
Trial of Queen Caroline . . . 1820 
First English Railway opened . . 1830 
Slavery abolished in British Colonies 1833 
Rebellion in Canada .... 1837 
The 0<Connell Trials. . . .1844 
The Railway Panic . . . . 1847 
The Great Exhibition in Hyde Park 1851 
Death of Wellington . . . .1852 
The Indian Mutiny .... 1857 
The Volunteer Movement commenced 18^9 
Death of the Prince Consort . . 1861 
The Cotton Famine .... 1862 
Marriage of the Prince of Wales . 1863 
The Cattle Plague .... 1865 
The Atlantic Cable successfully laid 1866 



George I. 

GrEORGE II. 



GrEORGE III. 



GrEORGE IV. 

William IV. 

)> 
Victoria. 



CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES. 



The Riot Act 

The Septennial Act . 

The American Stamp Act . 



1715 
1716 
1765 



George I. 



George III. 



LEADINa DATES OF THE HANOVERIAN PERIOD. 627 



Tax laid upon Tea, Glass, &c. in 

America 

Union of Great Britain and Ireland 
Test Corporation Act repealed . 
Eoman Catholic Emancipation Bill . 
First Eeform Bill . . . . 
Municipal Reform Bill 
The Corn Laws repealed , 
Navigation Laws repealed 
East India Company abolislied 
Jews admitted to Parliament . 
The Second Seform Bill passed 
The Irish Church Bill passed . 
National Education Bill . 
The Irish Land Bill . 



A.D. 

1767 Geosgb III. 

1801 

1828 Geoege JT. 

1829 

1832 William IV. 

1836 

1846 Victoria. 

1849 

1858 



1867 
1869 
1870 
1870 



CHANGES OF DOMINION, 


ETC. 




Hanover united with England . 


1714 


Geoege I. 


Bengal conquered .... 


1757 


George II. 


Canada ,, .... 


1760 


»» 


American Independence acknowledged 


1783 


George III, 


Malta captured 


1800 


>» 


Cape of Good Hope .... 


1806 


>> 


Hanover separated from England . 


1837 


Victoria. 


Hong Kong acquired 


1843 


» 


Ionian Islands surrendered to Greece 


1863 


ij 



WARS, BATTLES, TREATIES. 

James the Pretender in Scotland . 1715 
War with Spain . . . .1718 
Spaniards defeated off Cape Passaro „ 
Battle of Dettingen . . . .1743 
,, Fontenoy .... 1745 

Charles Edward lands in Scotland . 1745 
Battle of Culloden . . . .1746 
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . 1748 
The Seven Years' War began . . 1756 



George I. 



George II. 



628 



HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 



A.D. 

1757 



GrEORGB II. 



Battle of Flassey .... 
St. Malo and Cherbourg destroyed by 

an English Fleet .... 1758 „ 

Hawke's Victory in Quiberon Bay . 1759 „ 

Battle of the Heights of Abraham . „ „ 

First Peace of Paris . . . 1763 Georgk III. 



1775 



1776 

1777 



American War of Independence : 
Attack upon Concord 
Skirmish at Lexington . 
Battle of Bunker's Hill 
,, Brooklyn 

,, Brandy wine . 
Burgoyne surrenders at Saratoga „ 
CornwaUis surrenders at York Town 1781 
Treaty of Versailles . . .1783 

Siege of Gibraltar . . . 1779-1783 

War of the French Ee volution began 1793 

French Fleet defeated off TJshant . 1794 

Battle off Cape St. Vincent . . 1797 

„ of the Nile .... 1798 

Bombardment of Copenhagen . . 1801 

Treaty of Amiens .... 1802 

Battle of Trafalgar . . , . 1805 



The Peninsular War : 

Battle of Eolipa . 
Convention of Cintra . 
Battle of Corunna . 
Talavera 
Busaco . 
Barossa 

Fuentes d'Onoro 
,, Albuera . 
Capture of Ciudad Rodrigo 

Badajoz 
Battle of Salamanca 
„ Vittoria . 
„ Orthes "i 
„ Toulouse/ 



and 



1808 
1809 

1810 

>> 

1811 

i> 
1812 

1813 
1814 



LEADING DATES O'F THE HAN07EEIAN PEEIOD. 529 



War with tlie United States 
Treaty of Glieiit 
Battle of Waterloo . 
Second Peace of Paris 
Algiers bombarded . 
Battle of Navarino . 
,, Aliwal 

,, Sobraon 

„ CMUianwalla 

,, Goojerat . 

The Crimean War begins 
The Battle of Alma . 
„ Balaklava 

,, Inkermann 

Capture of Sebastopol 
Peace made at Paris 
War with China 
Abyssinian War . 



A.D. 

1812-14 
1814 
1815 



George III. 



1816 „ 

1827 Geoege IV. 

1846 Victoria. 

ji >i 

1849 

1854 ,, 



1855 
1856 
1860 
1868 



532 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



HANOVERIAN LINE. 
1714 A.D.— 



A.D, 



George I. (great-grandson of 




James I.) 


1714 


Reigned 13 


George II. (son) . 


1727 


33 


George III. (grandson) 


1760 


60 


George IV. (son) 


1820 


10 


William IV. (brother) 


1830 


7 


Victoria (niece) .... 


1837 





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